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This tour takes you through the distribution pattern\nof the film Imitation of Life in 1934-1935 as it passed from white theaters to\nblack theaters and back again in a segregated Atlanta. The tour is largely\nbased on the article \"Imitation of Life in a segregated Atlanta: its\npromotion, distribution, and reception\" by Matthew H. Bernstein and Dana\nF. White. A figure and textual excerpts from this article are used by permission from Indiana University Press.

\n\n

Background:

\n\n

John Stahl’s 1934 film, Imitation of Life, was, as\nBernstein and White note, significant for being “one of the first Hollywood\nstudio films to portray black characters seriously, not as comic sidekicks or\nmusical specialties or as slaves…imagin[ing] a sisterly, if unequal, bond\nbetween black and white single mothers” (152). It is a crucial hinge film in a\ntransition in black representation in cinema, but still an “uneasy” one given\ncontinuing segregation in the South (152). And due to the bifurcated plotting\nof the film, it was amenable to being marketed in different ways to white or\nblack audiences that foregrounded the plot meant for them. As Bernstein and\nWhite summarize the two plots:

The white plot follows a\nHoratio Alger trajectory of an impoverished white widow and single parent Bea\nPullman (Colbert), who…is overwhelmed by her business and maternal\nresponsibilities…As Jessie (Rochelle Hudson) grows, Bea is utterly devoted to\nher and spoils her. Only when Bea becomes wealthy through the mass production\nof pancake batter mix does she allow herself to fall in love with ichthyologist\n(marine scientist) Stephen Archer (Warren William). Ironically, while home from\nboarding school for a visit, Jessie spends a great deal of time with Stephen\nand, since Stephen and Bea keep their romance a secret from her, falls in love\nwith him. In a grand gesture typical of maternal melodrama, an anguished Bea\nultimately cancels her engagement with Stephen…She surrenders her romantic\nhappiness…so that nothing comes between her and her daughter. In the film’s\nextended opening sequence, Bea takes in an African-American single mother\nDelilah (Louise Beavers), whose story constitutes the film’s black plot…Delilah\narrives at Bea’s back door by accident and finds her unable to juggle all her\nresponsibilities. She insists on joining Bea’s household as a live-in domestic\nin return for room and board for herself and daughter Peola…Parallel to Bea’s\nanguish with Jessie, the light-skinned Peola causes her mother heartbreak since\nshe desperately desires to ‘pass’ as white, and rages against her dark-skinned\nmother and against segregated life in general…Peola rejects and abandons\nDelilah to cross the colour line. With this inconsolable loss forced upon her,\nthe helpless and uncomplaining Delilah dies of an unspecified ailment. Peola\ncomes remorsefully back to her mother’s funeral and accepts her black identity\nby agreeing to attend a black college in the South. (153-154)

\n\n

Because of this, the marketing of the film happened on\nsegregated lines, oftentimes to the near or total exclusion of the other\nstoryline. As Bernstein and White note, “white audience interest was likely\nstrengthened by movie ads and reviews that made no mention of the\nAfrican-American plotline and stars” (159) while these same ads intended for\nwhite audiences were revamped by local race theaters with new headlines\nforegrounding the black plot and with the black cast receiving top billing\n(165).

\n\n

This way of marketing the film ran parallel with its\ndistribution pattern in a segregated city like Atlanta. As opposed to the\nstandard run/zone/clearance pattern wherein a film, after premiering in a\ndowntown movie palace, would gradually radiate “out over several months from\nthe central downtown district to less central neighborhoods and suburbs” (160),\nwhich presumes a “uniformly white city with white theaters, whether or not they\nfeatured separate seating for African Americans” (161), the distribution\npattern for films in segregated cities were marked by race. In Atlanta:

following its standard\none-week run at the first-run Fox, Imitation of Life appeared in two of the\ncity’s black theaters nearly two weeks before it appeared in any of its white,\nsecond-run houses…At no time during this two-week period in which Imitation of\nLife played in Atlanta’s race theaters did the film show up in white second-run\nor neighborhood houses. After its white second-run showings in February, the\nfilm returned to race theaters, but only months and months later…This\ndistribution pattern, and that of other films released during the 1934–1935\nyear, indicates that the run/zone/clearance system accommodated race theaters\nas if they were located in an entirely different city – as, in a sense, they\nwere. Few white Atlantans would consider seeing a Hollywood film in a race\ntheater (midnight rambles aside). (161)

\n\n

This was apparently a common practice in Atlanta. As\nBernstein and White go on to explain:

the distribution pattern\nof black theater screenings in between the first and second white theater runs\nalso applied to films from nearly all the major \nproducer-distributors…This is not surprising – if we consider that after\nsuch films played in the first run theaters, the distributors had collected the\nbulk of their receipts. It likely made little difference to the distribution\nexecutives at the major studios where the films played next, unless independent\nexhibitors of second and third-run houses complained that the black side was\ngetting the films in advance of their theaters. Apparently, in Atlanta, second\nand third-run white theater managers had no problem with this arrangement, as\nit did not affect their ticket sales to white customers, most of whom had no\nreason or occasion to notice what took place across the colour line. (162)

\n\n

Nevertheless, Imitation of Life represented an\ninimitable cinematic experience for many Black Atlantans culminating in a\ngroundswell of public interest that, \"when combined with the unprecedented\npromotion and publicity campaign orchestrated by the Bailey Theaters and the\nAtlanta Daily World, turned the showing of Imitation of Life into a major\ncultural event. Here, a moviegoer's experience of viewing Imitation of Life at\nthe Royal or the Ashby became special. Here, moviegoing became reconfigured\nthrough ads and articles into a distinctively Black Atlanta happening -\nsomething to be enjoyed over and over, and then gain\" (174).

","flat_pages",[640,641],"icon_color","#D32F2F","id",2,"is_geo",true,"link_address","link_text","map_icon","map_overlay","map_type","hybrid","media",[634],"meta_description","This tour takes you through the distribution pattern\nof the film Imitation of Life in 1934-1935 as it passed from white theaters to\nblack theaters and back again in a segregated Atlanta. The tour is largely\nbased on the article \"Imitation of Life in a segregated Atlanta: its\npromotion, distribution, and reception\" by Matthew H. Bernstein and Dana\nF. White. A figure and textual excerpts from this article are used by permission from Indiana University Press. \n\nBackground:\n\nJohn Stahl’s 1934 film, Imitation of Life, was, as\nBernstein and White note, significant for being “one of the first Hollywood\nstudio films to portray black characters seriously, not as comic sidekicks or\nmusical specialties or as slaves…imagin[ing] a sisterly, if unequal, bond\nbetween black and white single mothers” (152). It is a crucial hinge film in a\ntransition in black representation in cinema, but still an “uneasy” one given\ncontinuing segregation in the South (152). And due to the bifurcated plotting\nof the film, it was amenable to being marketed in different ways to white or\nblack audiences that foregrounded the plot meant for them. As Bernstein and\nWhite summarize the two plots:The white plot follows a\nHoratio Alger trajectory of an impoverished white widow and single parent Bea\nPullman (Colbert), who…is overwhelmed by her business and maternal\nresponsibilities…As Jessie (Rochelle Hudson) grows, Bea is utterly devoted to\nher and spoils her. Only when Bea becomes wealthy through the mass production\nof pancake batter mix does she allow herself to fall in love with ichthyologist\n(marine scientist) Stephen Archer (Warren William). Ironically, while home from\nboarding school for a visit, Jessie spends a great deal of time with Stephen\nand, since Stephen and Bea keep their romance a secret from her, falls in love\nwith him. In a grand gesture typical of maternal melodrama, an anguished Bea\nultimately cancels her engagement with Stephen…She surrenders her romantic\nhappiness…so that nothing comes between her and her daughter. In the film’s\nextended opening sequence, Bea takes in an African-American single mother\nDelilah (Louise Beavers), whose story constitutes the film’s black plot…Delilah\narrives at Bea’s back door by accident and finds her unable to juggle all her\nresponsibilities. She insists on joining Bea’s household as a live-in domestic\nin return for room and board for herself and daughter Peola…Parallel to Bea’s\nanguish with Jessie, the light-skinned Peola causes her mother heartbreak since\nshe desperately desires to ‘pass’ as white, and rages against her dark-skinned\nmother and against segregated life in general…Peola rejects and abandons\nDelilah to cross the colour line. With this inconsolable loss forced upon her,\nthe helpless and uncomplaining Delilah dies of an unspecified ailment. Peola\ncomes remorsefully back to her mother’s funeral and accepts her black identity\nby agreeing to attend a black college in the South. (153-154)\n\nBecause of this, the marketing of the film happened on\nsegregated lines, oftentimes to the near or total exclusion of the other\nstoryline. As Bernstein and White note, “white audience interest was likely\nstrengthened by movie ads and reviews that made no mention of the\nAfrican-American plotline and stars” (159) while these same ads intended for\nwhite audiences were revamped by local race theaters with new headlines\nforegrounding the black plot and with the black cast receiving top billing\n(165).\n\nThis way of marketing the film ran parallel with its\ndistribution pattern in a segregated city like Atlanta. As opposed to the\nstandard run/zone/clearance pattern wherein a film, after premiering in a\ndowntown movie palace, would gradually radiate “out over several months from\nthe central downtown district to less central neighborhoods and suburbs” (160),\nwhich presumes a “uniformly white city with white theaters, whether or not they\nfeatured separate seating for African Americans” (161), the distribution\npattern for films in segregated cities were marked by race. In Atlanta:following its standard\none-week run at the first-run Fox, Imitation of Life appeared in two of the\ncity’s black theaters nearly two weeks before it appeared in any of its white,\nsecond-run houses…At no time during this two-week period in which Imitation of\nLife played in Atlanta’s race theaters did the film show up in white second-run\nor neighborhood houses. After its white second-run showings in February, the\nfilm returned to race theaters, but only months and months later…This\ndistribution pattern, and that of other films released during the 1934–1935\nyear, indicates that the run/zone/clearance system accommodated race theaters\nas if they were located in an entirely different city – as, in a sense, they\nwere. Few white Atlantans would consider seeing a Hollywood film in a race\ntheater (midnight rambles aside). (161)\n\nThis was apparently a common practice in Atlanta. As\nBernstein and White go on to explain:the distribution pattern\nof black theater screenings in between the first and second white theater runs\nalso applied to films from nearly all the major \nproducer-distributors…This is not surprising – if we consider that after\nsuch films played in the first run theaters, the distributors had collected the\nbulk of their receipts. It likely made little difference to the distribution\nexecutives at the major studios where the films played next, unless independent\nexhibitors of second and third-run houses complained that the black side was\ngetting the films in advance of their theaters. Apparently, in Atlanta, second\nand third-run white theater managers had no problem with this arrangement, as\nit did not affect their ticket sales to white customers, most of whom had no\nreason or occasion to notice what took place across the colour line. (162)\n\nNevertheless, Imitation of Life represented an\ninimitable cinematic experience for many Black Atlantans culminating in a\ngroundswell of public interest that, \"when combined with the unprecedented\npromotion and publicity campaign orchestrated by the Bailey Theaters and the\nAtlanta Daily World, turned the showing of Imitation of Life into a major\ncultural event. Here, a moviegoer's experience of viewing Imitation of Life at\nthe Royal or the Ashby became special. Here, moviegoing became reconfigured\nthrough ads and articles into a distinctively Black Atlanta happening -\nsomething to be enjoyed over and over, and then gain\" (174).","mode",{"_34":525,"_73":630},"modes",[626,627,628,629],"open_geographies_endpoint","published","published_on","2026-09-10","read_duration","8 minutes reading","restrict_bounds","restrict_bounds_to_overlay","sanitized_description","splash",{"_73":624,"_134":-5,"_135":625},"slug","run-of-%E2%80%98imitation-of-life%E2%80%99-in-atlanta-movie-theaters","slugs",[621,622,623],"stop_count",19,"stops",[85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103],"tenant_title","Openworld Atlanta Tours","title","1934-1935 run of ‘Imitation of Life’ in Atlanta movie theaters","travel_duration","About 4 hours 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Memorial Dr SE, Atlanta, GA 30312, USA","article_link","

Neighborhood theater

Imitation of Life played here Sept. 17-18, 1935

\n\n\n\n

Originally named the Memorial Theatre and subsequently\nrenamed the Fairview. It apparently opened by 1932 and closed in 1952 (CT).

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Black theater

Imitation of Life played here Sept. 2-3, 1935

\"The Harlem Theater was opened by 1940 and operated as an African-American theatre by the Bailey Theaters chain\" (CT).

",33.7412971,-84.40310319999999,[186],"Black theaterImitation of Life played here Sept. 2-3, 1935\"The Harlem Theater was opened by 1940 and operated as an African-American theatre by the Bailey Theaters chain\" (CT).",[185,169],{"_73":183,"_134":-5,"_135":184},[],"htverybig.jpg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/xs5perldgdouvptmfnowerb9cjfc?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663189295633",{"_108":187,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":183,"_147":188,"_34":189,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":183,"_158":-5},37,{"_159":190,"_161":191,"_163":192,"_165":184,"_166":193},39,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/xs5perldgdouvptmfnowerb9cjfc","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/xs5perldgdouvptmfnowerb9cjfc?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/xs5perldgdouvptmfnowerb9cjfc?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/xs5perldgdouvptmfnowerb9cjfc?variant=lqip",26,"temple-theatre","Temple Theatre",{"_34":168,"_63":169,"_73":170},17,{"_34":227,"_63":228,"_73":229},"456 Cherokee Ave SE, Atlanta, GA 30312, USA","

Neighborhood theater

Imitation\nof Life played here August 21-22, 1935

The Temple Theatre opened in the Grant Park Masonic\nTemple Building on November 29, 1934 with Fred Astaire & Ginger Rogers in\n“Flying Down to Rio” (CT).

\n\n\n\n\n\n

",33.7419192,-84.3733017,[212,213],"Neighborhood theaterImitation\nof Life played here August 21-22, 1935 The Temple Theatre opened in the Grant Park Masonic\nTemple Building on November 29, 1934 with Fred Astaire & Ginger Rogers in\n“Flying Down to Rio” (CT). \n\n\n\n\n\n ",[211,195],{"_73":209,"_134":-5,"_135":210},[],"temple.gif","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/q5ildgbagecho16c00uves1iewwe?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663188959973",{"_108":172,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":209,"_147":222,"_34":68,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":209,"_158":-5},{"_108":68,"_105":22,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":214,"_147":215,"_34":216,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":214,"_158":-5},"templenow.jpg",{"_159":217,"_161":218,"_163":219,"_165":220,"_166":221},20,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2ihv94is4jybnjqxpctt36morhmg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2ihv94is4jybnjqxpctt36morhmg?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2ihv94is4jybnjqxpctt36morhmg?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2ihv94is4jybnjqxpctt36morhmg?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2ihv94is4jybnjqxpctt36morhmg?variant=lqip",{"_159":223,"_161":224,"_163":225,"_165":210,"_166":226},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/q5ildgbagecho16c00uves1iewwe","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/q5ildgbagecho16c00uves1iewwe?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/q5ildgbagecho16c00uves1iewwe?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/q5ildgbagecho16c00uves1iewwe?variant=lqip",25,"new-lincoln-theatre","New Lincoln Theatre",{"_34":194,"_63":195,"_73":196},16,{"_34":253,"_63":254,"_73":255},"405 Mitchell St SW, Atlanta, GA 30313, USA","

Black theater

Imitation\nof Life played here August 19-20, 1935

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

\"Opened by 1937, the Lincoln Theater was part of\nthe Bailey Theaters circuit and was operated as an African-American theater\nuntil 1955\" (CT).

",33.7540021,-84.39915719999999,[245],"Black theaterImitation\nof Life played here August 19-20, 1935\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\"Opened by 1937, the Lincoln Theater was part of\nthe Bailey Theaters circuit and was operated as an African-American theater\nuntil 1955\" (CT).",[244,228],{"_73":242,"_134":-5,"_135":243},[],"Lincoln1big.jpg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/aglcoyt8g1p4pbc1xsm9jbdb69v5?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663188734876",{"_108":246,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":242,"_147":247,"_34":248,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":242,"_158":-5},41,{"_159":249,"_161":250,"_163":251,"_165":243,"_166":252},43,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/aglcoyt8g1p4pbc1xsm9jbdb69v5","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/aglcoyt8g1p4pbc1xsm9jbdb69v5?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/aglcoyt8g1p4pbc1xsm9jbdb69v5?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/aglcoyt8g1p4pbc1xsm9jbdb69v5?variant=lqip",24,"buckhead-theatre","Buckhead Theatre",{"_34":227,"_63":228,"_73":229},15,{"_34":280,"_63":281,"_73":282},"3110 Roswell Rd NW, Atlanta, GA 30305, USA","

Neighborhood theater

Imitation of Life played here July 8-9, 1935

\"Originally opened as the Buckhead Theatre on June 2, 1930 with Nancy Welford in “Gold Diggers of Broadway”. Seating was provided for 800 in the orchestra and 256 in the balcony\" (CT).

",33.8403431,-84.3799269,[271],"Neighborhood theaterImitation of Life played here July 8-9, 1935\"Originally opened as the Buckhead Theatre on June 2, 1930 with Nancy Welford in “Gold Diggers of Broadway”. Seating was provided for 800 in the orchestra and 256 in the balcony\" (CT). ",[270,254],{"_73":121,"_134":268,"_135":269},[],"Lane Brothers / LBGPF8-058a GSU Special Collections","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gm5i3rys4j6i0ah6h6rstl1prasm?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663188457314",{"_108":272,"_105":140,"_134":268,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":273,"_147":274,"_34":275,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":121,"_158":-5},6,"buckhead.jpg",{"_159":276,"_161":277,"_163":278,"_165":269,"_166":279},7,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gm5i3rys4j6i0ah6h6rstl1prasm","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gm5i3rys4j6i0ah6h6rstl1prasm?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gm5i3rys4j6i0ah6h6rstl1prasm?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gm5i3rys4j6i0ah6h6rstl1prasm?variant=lqip",23,"cascade-theatre","Cascade Theatre",{"_34":253,"_63":254,"_73":255},14,{"_34":306,"_63":307,"_73":308},"1348 Ralph David Abernathy Blvd, Atlanta, GA 30310, USA","

Neighborhood theater

Imitation of Life played here June 10-11, 1935

\"The Cascade Theatre was located according to the newspaper article of the opening at 1346 Gordon Street and was designed by Robert and Company Architects of Atlanta for Lucus and Jenkins and opened in late May of 1935\" (CT).

",33.7389978,-84.4320158,[298],"Neighborhood theaterImitation of Life played here June 10-11, 1935\"The Cascade Theatre was located according to the newspaper article of the opening at 1346 Gordon Street and was designed by Robert and Company Architects of Atlanta for Lucus and Jenkins and opened in late May of 1935\" (CT).",[297,281],{"_73":295,"_134":-5,"_135":296},[],"cascadebignew.jpg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/cdmzorluxb2ffgf3qkjgurmsyhg1?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663188292228",{"_108":299,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":295,"_147":300,"_34":301,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":295,"_158":-5},42,{"_159":302,"_161":303,"_163":304,"_165":296,"_166":305},44,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/cdmzorluxb2ffgf3qkjgurmsyhg1","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/cdmzorluxb2ffgf3qkjgurmsyhg1?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/cdmzorluxb2ffgf3qkjgurmsyhg1?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/cdmzorluxb2ffgf3qkjgurmsyhg1?variant=lqip",22,"college-park-theatre","College Park Theatre",{"_34":280,"_63":281,"_73":282},13,{"_34":332,"_63":333,"_73":334},"Main St, College Park, GA 30337, USA","

Neighborhood theater
\n\n
Imitation\nof Life played here June 3-4, 1935
\n\n
\"The College Park was the only theatre to have\never been built in this small suburb of Atlanta\" (CT).
\n\n
It was also known as Park Theatre.

",33.657532,-84.4483859,[325],"Neighborhood theater\n\nImitation\nof Life played here June 3-4, 1935\n\n\"The College Park was the only theatre to have\never been built in this small suburb of Atlanta\" (CT).\n\nIt was also known as Park Theatre.",[323,324,307],{"_73":321,"_134":-5,"_135":322},[],"cpt-big.jpg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/z8v7r3tir6q6tnphlwm4pmmiisvy?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663188074768","college-park-theater",{"_108":248,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":321,"_147":326,"_34":327,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":321,"_158":-5},{"_159":328,"_161":329,"_163":330,"_165":322,"_166":331},45,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/z8v7r3tir6q6tnphlwm4pmmiisvy","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/z8v7r3tir6q6tnphlwm4pmmiisvy?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/z8v7r3tir6q6tnphlwm4pmmiisvy?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/z8v7r3tir6q6tnphlwm4pmmiisvy?variant=lqip",21,"empire-theatre","Empire Theatre",{"_34":306,"_63":307,"_73":308},12,{"_34":356,"_63":357,"_73":358},"755 Hank Aaron Dr SW, Atlanta, GA 30315, USA","

Neighborhood theater

Imitation\nof Life played here May 7-9 and July 3, 1935

\"The Empire Theatre was opened March 19, 1928\nwith 'The Cohen’s and Kelly’s in Paris'. The same firm who did the Erlanger\nTheatre allegedly designed it. It was closed in the 1950’s and demolished in\nthe mid-1960’s\" (CT).

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Google Maps' pin icon shows this theater at the corner\nof Georgia Avenue at Fraser Street, but if you look at the ad for the 1928\ngrand opening...it says the Empire was on Georgia Avenue at\nCrew Street. Crew was two blocks west of Fraser (CT).

",33.73680835744301,-84.38937120757905,[350],"Neighborhood theaterImitation\nof Life played here May 7-9 and July 3, 1935\"The Empire Theatre was opened March 19, 1928\nwith 'The Cohen’s and Kelly’s in Paris'. The same firm who did the Erlanger\nTheatre allegedly designed it. It was closed in the 1950’s and demolished in\nthe mid-1960’s\" (CT).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nGoogle Maps' pin icon shows this theater at the corner\nof Georgia Avenue at Fraser Street, but if you look at the ad for the 1928\ngrand opening...it says the Empire was on Georgia Avenue at\nCrew Street. Crew was two blocks west of Fraser (CT). ",[349,333],{"_73":347,"_134":-5,"_135":348},[],"empire.gif","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/nnj6ajrrhb5f6ydvq2i0s2fepygh?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663187664390",{"_108":198,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":347,"_147":351,"_34":172,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":347,"_158":-5},{"_159":352,"_161":353,"_163":354,"_165":348,"_166":355},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/nnj6ajrrhb5f6ydvq2i0s2fepygh","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/nnj6ajrrhb5f6ydvq2i0s2fepygh?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/nnj6ajrrhb5f6ydvq2i0s2fepygh?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/nnj6ajrrhb5f6ydvq2i0s2fepygh?variant=lqip",29,"81-theatre","81 Theatre",{"_34":332,"_63":333,"_73":334},11,{"_34":68,"_63":382,"_73":383},"81 Decatur St SE, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","

Black theater

Imitation of Life played here May 6-9, 1935

\"The largest of the Bailey theaters was the 81 Theatre, which seated an audience of nearly 1,500 when filled to capacity. The 81 (named after its address at 81 Decatur Street) was the 'first run' theater of the circuit; new films appeared there before moving on to the smaller Bailey theaters. It also hosted many stage shows as Atlanta’s premiere black theater and showed 'race films,' films produced by black studios for black audiences while starring all-black casts, as well\" (Zarafonetis 183)

",33.75261177744006,-84.38734464232788,[374],"Black theaterImitation of Life played here May 6-9, 1935\"The largest of the Bailey theaters was the 81 Theatre, which seated an audience of nearly 1,500 when filled to capacity. The 81 (named after its address at 81 Decatur Street) was the 'first run' theater of the circuit; new films appeared there before moving on to the smaller Bailey theaters. It also hosted many stage shows as Atlanta’s premiere black theater and showed 'race films,' films produced by black studios for black audiences while starring all-black casts, as well\" (Zarafonetis 183)",[373,357],{"_73":121,"_134":371,"_135":372},[],"Charles Pugh/AJC","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3gig14ppatpy37to51jz6ulgl1q0?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663190012929",{"_108":375,"_105":140,"_134":371,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":376,"_147":377,"_34":272,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":121,"_158":-5},5,"81.jpg",{"_159":378,"_161":379,"_163":380,"_165":372,"_166":381},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3gig14ppatpy37to51jz6ulgl1q0","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3gig14ppatpy37to51jz6ulgl1q0?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3gig14ppatpy37to51jz6ulgl1q0?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3gig14ppatpy37to51jz6ulgl1q0?variant=lqip","kirkwood-theatre","Kirkwood Theatre",{"_34":356,"_63":357,"_73":358},10,{"_34":172,"_63":398,"_73":399},"1965 Hosea L Williams Dr NE, Atlanta, GA 30317, USA","

Neighborhood theater

\n\n

Imitation\nof Life played here April 22-23, 1935

\n\n

\"Originally part of the Bailey’s Theatre circuit.\nThe Kirkwood Theatre was opened June 17, 1934. It was remodeled and reopened\nFebruary 28, 1937. On April 20, 1962 it became the first adult theatre to\noperate in the city\" (CT).

",33.7516562,-84.32335119999999,[397],"Neighborhood theater\n\nImitation\nof Life played here April 22-23, 1935\n\n\"Originally part of the Bailey’s Theatre circuit.\nThe Kirkwood Theatre was opened June 17, 1934. It was remodeled and reopened\nFebruary 28, 1937. On April 20, 1962 it became the first adult theatre to\noperate in the city\" (CT).",[395,396,382],[],"new-stop-1663182821929","kirkwood",{"_108":231,"_105":140},"fairfax-theatre","Fairfax Theatre",{"_34":68,"_63":382,"_73":383},{"_34":198,"_63":421,"_73":422},"Main St, East Point, GA 30344, USA","

Neighborhood theater

\n\n

Imitation\nof Life played here April 18-19, 1935

\n\n

\"The Fairfax Theatre was opened September 28,\n1926 with Ford Sterling in 'Stepping Out'. It was destroyed by fire sometime\nduring the mid to late-1950’s\" (CT).

",33.6735821,-84.4423226,[414],"Neighborhood theater\n\nImitation\nof Life played here April 18-19, 1935\n\n\"The Fairfax Theatre was opened September 28,\n1926 with Ford Sterling in 'Stepping Out'. It was destroyed by fire sometime\nduring the mid to late-1950’s\" (CT).",[413,398],{"_73":411,"_134":-5,"_135":412},[],"fairfax2big.jpg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/mn51rrf5jmigfubdsqc8m3fzan9r?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663182498283",{"_108":415,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":411,"_147":416,"_34":299,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":411,"_158":-5},40,{"_159":417,"_161":418,"_163":419,"_165":412,"_166":420},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/mn51rrf5jmigfubdsqc8m3fzan9r","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/mn51rrf5jmigfubdsqc8m3fzan9r?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/mn51rrf5jmigfubdsqc8m3fzan9r?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/mn51rrf5jmigfubdsqc8m3fzan9r?variant=lqip","palace-theatre","Palace Theatre",{"_34":172,"_63":398,"_73":399},{"_34":231,"_63":443,"_73":444},"1142 Euclid Ave NE, Atlanta, GA 30307, USA","

Neighborhood theater

Imitation\nof Life played here February 28-March 1, 1935

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

\"The Palace Theatre was opened in August 1924 and\nclosed in 1943\" (CT).

",33.7650081,-84.35010729999999,[437],"Neighborhood theaterImitation\nof Life played here February 28-March 1, 1935\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\"The Palace Theatre was opened in August 1924 and\nclosed in 1943\" (CT).",[436,421],{"_73":434,"_134":-5,"_135":435},[],"palace-big.jpg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8tuck5razk4a2jkhfsql1fbp8x83?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663180397654",{"_108":189,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":434,"_147":438,"_34":246,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":434,"_158":-5},{"_159":439,"_161":440,"_163":441,"_165":435,"_166":442},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8tuck5razk4a2jkhfsql1fbp8x83","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8tuck5razk4a2jkhfsql1fbp8x83?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8tuck5razk4a2jkhfsql1fbp8x83?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8tuck5razk4a2jkhfsql1fbp8x83?variant=lqip","west-end-theatre","West End Theatre",{"_34":198,"_63":421,"_73":422},{"_34":257,"_63":467,"_73":468},"576b Lee St SW, Atlanta, GA 30310, USA","

Neighborhood theater

Imitation of Life played here Feb. 21-22, 1935

\"The West End Theatre was opened November 23, 1925 with Mary Pickford in 'Little Annie Rooney'.\"

The building was demolished at an unknown date (CT).

","

",33.73922411935586,-84.4141888883606,[460],"Neighborhood theaterImitation of Life played here Feb. 21-22, 1935 \"The West End Theatre was opened November 23, 1925 with Mary Pickford in 'Little Annie Rooney'.\" The building was demolished at an unknown date (CT).",[459,443],{"_73":121,"_134":457,"_135":458},[],"John Tanner","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2v6bojnk7sdor8scqmgzyk0su8zf?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663180071817",{"_108":275,"_105":140,"_134":457,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":461,"_147":462,"_34":139,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":121,"_158":-5},"westend.jpg",{"_159":463,"_161":464,"_163":465,"_165":458,"_166":466},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2v6bojnk7sdor8scqmgzyk0su8zf","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2v6bojnk7sdor8scqmgzyk0su8zf?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2v6bojnk7sdor8scqmgzyk0su8zf?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/2v6bojnk7sdor8scqmgzyk0su8zf?variant=lqip","dekalb-theatre","Dekalb Theatre",{"_34":231,"_63":443,"_73":444},{"_34":284,"_63":492,"_73":493},"150 E Ponce de Leon Ave Suite 120, Decatur, GA 30030, USA","

Neighborhood theater

\n\n

Imitation\nof Life played here February 14-15, 1935

\n\n

\"The DeKalb Theatre opened August 8, 1927 with\nWilliam Haines in 'Slide, Kelly, Slide'. It was located adjacent to the Candler\nHotel and was operated by F.S. Harris. It was remodeled in 1937, and closed in\n1953\" (CT).

","

",33.775665066024494,-84.29550887116392,[484],"Neighborhood theater\n\nImitation\nof Life played here February 14-15, 1935\n\n\"The DeKalb Theatre opened August 8, 1927 with\nWilliam Haines in 'Slide, Kelly, Slide'. It was located adjacent to the Candler\nHotel and was operated by F. S. Harris. It was remodeled in 1937, and closed in\n1953\" (CT).",[483,467],{"_73":121,"_134":481,"_135":482},[],"D.G. Whitefield","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/tbixxl0uhq5y9f847hsdix9al5wo?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663179523528",{"_108":485,"_105":140,"_134":481,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":486,"_147":487,"_34":485,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":121,"_158":-5},3,"dekalb-dg-whitefield.jpg",{"_159":488,"_161":489,"_163":490,"_165":482,"_166":491},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/tbixxl0uhq5y9f847hsdix9al5wo","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/tbixxl0uhq5y9f847hsdix9al5wo?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/tbixxl0uhq5y9f847hsdix9al5wo?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/tbixxl0uhq5y9f847hsdix9al5wo?variant=lqip","alpha-theatre","Alpha Theatre",{"_34":257,"_63":467,"_73":468},{"_34":310,"_63":522,"_73":523},"182 Peachtree St SW, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","

2nd run theater

Imitation of Life played here February 7-8, 1935

\"It can be tricky calculating the locations of Atlanta’s theaters from their old addresses. The part of Whitehall Street on which the Alpha Theatre was located was renamed to be part of Peachtree Street at some point. A 1911 Sanborn map has 148 Whitehall on the east side of the street just south of Trinity Street, and the lot 144-148 was then occupied by a large house with a big yard, so the theater hadn’t been built yet, but it had been by February, 1916 (advertisement cited by kencmcintyre.) The modern address would be approximately 182 Peachtree Street SW. There is now a parking lot extending from Trinity Street to the building at modern 196 Peachtree\" (CT).

",33.7494432,-84.3939065,[508,509],"2nd run theaterImitation of Life played here February 7-8, 1935\"It can be tricky calculating the locations of Atlanta’s theaters from their old addresses. The part of Whitehall Street on which the Alpha Theatre was located was renamed to be part of Peachtree Street at some point. A 1911 Sanborn map has 148 Whitehall on the east side of the street just south of Trinity Street, and the lot 144-148 was then occupied by a large house with a big yard, so the theater hadn’t been built yet, but it had been by February, 1916 (advertisement cited by kencmcintyre.) The modern address would be approximately 182 Peachtree Street SW. There is now a parking lot extending from Trinity Street to the building at modern 196 Peachtree\" (CT).",[507,492],{"_73":505,"_134":-5,"_135":506},[],"alpha.jpg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/586x67idl8ida7l8dew92ul29la4?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663178930321",{"_108":336,"_105":22,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":505,"_147":517,"_34":310,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":505,"_158":-5},{"_108":360,"_105":35,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":510,"_147":511,"_34":336,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":510,"_158":-5},"alpha2.png",{"_159":512,"_161":513,"_163":514,"_165":515,"_166":516},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/bw6atyytk3jtr216g3lpeai0rxza","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/bw6atyytk3jtr216g3lpeai0rxza?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/bw6atyytk3jtr216g3lpeai0rxza?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/bw6atyytk3jtr216g3lpeai0rxza?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/bw6atyytk3jtr216g3lpeai0rxza?variant=lqip",{"_159":518,"_161":519,"_163":520,"_165":506,"_166":521},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/586x67idl8ida7l8dew92ul29la4","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/586x67idl8ida7l8dew92ul29la4?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/586x67idl8ida7l8dew92ul29la4?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/586x67idl8ida7l8dew92ul29la4?variant=lqip","10th-street-theatre","10th Street Theatre",{"_34":284,"_63":492,"_73":493},4,{"_34":336,"_63":538,"_73":539},"979 Crescent Ave NE, Atlanta, GA 30309, USA","

2nd run theater

Imitation of Life played here Feb. 7-8, 1935

\"The 10th Street Theatre opened on September 27, 1926. The exterior was in a faux Spanish style with red stucco and a tile edged roof...It closed around 1956/57 and few years later was converted into a Chinese restaurant called ‘House of Eng’ which lasted through the 1960’s. The building was demolished in the late 1970’s or early 1980’s\" (CT).

Original address was 990 Peachtree NE

\"The demise of the theatre ultimately came due to its location. As one crossed Peachtree heading west on 1Oth drivers had to make a sharp dog leg to continue on 10th which then became a narrow street running down beside the theatre. If drivers were not careful they could end up in the lobby of the theatre. In the mid fifites it was decided to widened the section of 10th street from Peachtree to Northside drive. The theatre was demolished, and 1oth street was straighten out and now runs were the theatre once stood\" (CT).

",33.78117985886468,-84.38457105858308,[537],"2nd run theaterImitation of Life played here Feb. 7-8, 1935\"The 10th Street Theatre opened on September 27, 1926. The exterior was in a faux Spanish style with red stucco and a tile edged roof...It closed around 1956/57 and few years later was converted into a Chinese restaurant called ‘House of Eng’ which lasted through the 1960’s. The building was demolished in the late 1970’s or early 1980’s\" (CT).Original address was 990 Peachtree NE \"The demise of the theatre ultimately came due to its location. As one crossed Peachtree heading west on 1Oth drivers had to make a sharp dog leg to continue on 10th which then became a narrow street running down beside the theatre. If drivers were not careful they could end up in the lobby of the theatre. In the mid fifites it was decided to widened the section of 10th street from Peachtree to Northside drive. The theatre was demolished, and 1oth street was straighten out and now runs were the theatre once stood\" (CT).",[535,536,522],[],"new-stop-1663178430077","tenth-street-theatre",{"_108":385,"_105":140},"new-ashby-theater","New Ashby Theater",{"_34":310,"_63":522,"_73":523},{"_34":360,"_63":561,"_73":562},"925 M.L.K. Jr Dr NW, Atlanta, GA 30314, USA","

Black theater

Imitation of Life played here January 25-February 2, 1935

\"Opened in 1934, Ashby Street Theatre was one of Atlanta’s first theaters to serve the African American community as part of the Bailey Theater chain. The theater was built by an all-African American construction crew, providing those workers important employment in the midst of the Great Depression. In the Jim Crow era, Ashby Street Theatre provided a space for African Americans to enjoy the latest movies in their own community without having to suffer segregated entrances and seating areas. The theater served as an anchor for the surrounding neighborhoods throughout the 1940s, 50s and 60s\" (The Georgia Trust).

Timeline:

1934: The 300-seat New Ashby Theater opened at the corner of then Ashby and Hunter streets (now MLK Jr. Drive and Joseph Lowery Boulevard). It was part of the Bailey Amusement Company.

1959: Movies were still being shown. Some films from that era that graced the screen were “The Blob” (1958); “The Tingler” (1959); and “Imitation of Life” (1959).

1974: The theater closed after integration happened.

Years following: The auditorium became a dinner theater; other businesses took up space in the front, including an ice cream parlor and a travel agency. The businesses eventually closed.

1981: The seats are removed from the auditorium.

1995: The exterior of the old Ashby Theatre can be seen in the film “Soul Survivors,” which featured Isaac Hayes.

Late 1990s-early 2000s: New Restoration Christian Cathedral held services in the theater

2021: The theater is listed on “Places in Peril” by the Georgia Trust for Historic Preservation.

(AJC)

",33.7549718,-84.417908,[554],"Black theaterImitation of Life played here January 25-February 2, 1935\"Opened in 1934, Ashby Street Theatre was one of Atlanta’s first theaters to serve the African American community as part of the Bailey Theater chain. The theater was built by an all-African American construction crew, providing those workers important employment in the midst of the Great Depression. In the Jim Crow era, Ashby Street Theatre provided a space for African Americans to enjoy the latest movies in their own community without having to suffer segregated entrances and seating areas. The theater served as an anchor for the surrounding neighborhoods throughout the 1940s, 50s and 60s\" (The Georgia Trust).Timeline:1934: The 300-seat New Ashby Theater opened at the corner of then Ashby and Hunter streets (now MLK Jr. Drive and Joseph Lowery Boulevard). It was part of the Bailey Amusement Company.1959: Movies were still being shown. Some films from that era that graced the screen were “The Blob” (1958); “The Tingler” (1959); and “Imitation of Life” (1959).1974: The theater closed after integration happened. Years following: The auditorium became a dinner theater; other businesses took up space in the front, including an ice cream parlor and a travel agency. The businesses eventually closed.1981: The seats are removed from the auditorium.1995: The exterior of the old Ashby Theatre can be seen in the film “Soul Survivors,” which featured Isaac Hayes. Late 1990s-early 2000s: New Restoration Christian Cathedral held services in the theater2021: The theater is listed on “Places in Peril” by the Georgia Trust for Historic Preservation.(AJC) ",[553,538],{"_73":121,"_134":551,"_135":552},[],"“Photograph, View of MLK Jr Drive NW with Ashby Theater in the background, ca. 1940s,” UGA Special Collections Library Online Exhibitions.","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/fxz4yogsbdyzdn53exejkdw134oh?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663177227392",{"_108":525,"_105":140,"_134":551,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":555,"_147":556,"_34":375,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":121,"_158":-5},"ashby.jpg",{"_159":557,"_161":558,"_163":559,"_165":552,"_166":560},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/fxz4yogsbdyzdn53exejkdw134oh","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/fxz4yogsbdyzdn53exejkdw134oh?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/fxz4yogsbdyzdn53exejkdw134oh?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/fxz4yogsbdyzdn53exejkdw134oh?variant=lqip","royal-theatre","Royal Theatre",{"_34":336,"_63":538,"_73":539},{"_34":385,"_63":584,"_73":585},"238 Auburn Ave NE, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","

Black theater

Imitation of Life played here January 21-24, 1935 and also June 10, 1935

\"This was situated in the Auditorium Addition to the Odd Fellows Building...The house first opened as the Pioneer Theater in 1914. It was re-named The Auditorium in 1917, and became the Paramount Theater in 1924, and the Royal in 1930. From its beginnings, until its sale to the white-owned Bailey Theater chain, the Auditorium was black-owned and black-managed. Even after the transfer of ownership, it continued under black management through the late 1950s. The theater finally closed in 1971, almost a decade after the desegregation of public facilities citywide. The pride of Auburn Avenue, the heart of Black Atlanta’s commercial district, the Royal Theater, under its various designations catered to the city’s black elite by featuring Hollywood dramatic films, as well as such ‘race film’ productions as those of Oscar Micheaux, Richard Norman, and later, Spencer Williams\" (Bernstein & White 161).

",33.7557045,-84.3798157,[577],"Black theaterImitation of Life played here January 21-24, 1935 and also June 10, 1935\"This was situated in the Auditorium Addition to the Odd Fellows Building...The house first opened as the Pioneer Theater in 1914. It was re-named The Auditorium in 1917, and became the Paramount Theater in 1924, and the Royal in 1930. From its beginnings, until its sale to the white-owned Bailey Theater chain, the Auditorium was black-owned and black-managed. Even after the transfer of ownership, it continued under black management through the late 1950s. The theater finally closed in 1971, almost a decade after the desegregation of public facilities citywide. The pride of Auburn Avenue, the heart of Black Atlanta’s commercial district, the Royal Theater, under its various designations catered to the city’s black elite by featuring Hollywood dramatic films, as well as such ‘race film’ productions as those of Oscar Micheaux, Richard Norman, and later, Spencer Williams\" (Bernstein & White 161).",[575,561,576],{"_73":121,"_134":-5,"_135":574},[],"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/9bn96qiywkfgrusysbxezswdojml?variant=desktop","new-stop-1663176903245","royal-theater",{"_108":35,"_105":140,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":578,"_147":579,"_34":35,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":121,"_158":-5},"royal1.jpg",{"_159":580,"_161":581,"_163":582,"_165":574,"_166":583},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/9bn96qiywkfgrusysbxezswdojml","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/9bn96qiywkfgrusysbxezswdojml?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/9bn96qiywkfgrusysbxezswdojml?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/9bn96qiywkfgrusysbxezswdojml?variant=lqip","fox-theatre","Fox Theatre",{"_34":360,"_63":561,"_73":562},"654 W Peachtree St NW, Atlanta, GA 30375, USA","

First run theater

Imitation of Life played here from December 7-13, 1934

Conception:

\"At first conceived by the Shriners fraternal order as a meeting hall, headquarters, and community center, the structure that would become the Fox Theatre was originally named the Shrine Mosque. As a prestigious fraternal organization that co-opted the aesthetics and mysticism of the Near East, the Atlanta Shriners wished to build an opulent structure in a Moorish or Middle Eastern motif like their counterparts in other cities while also providing the city of Atlanta with a civic auditorium and events center. Planning for this project began nearly fifteen years before the Fox opened on Christmas of 1929, but the Shriners were forced to overhaul their original plans several times during that fifteen-year span. When construction costs spiraled out of control in 1927, the Shriners enlisted the aid of film mogul William Fox, who expressed his desire to lease the Shrine Mosque’s proposed auditorium and operate it as the Fox Theatre, enabling the Shriners to continue their ambitious project” (Zarafonetis 42-43).

Disrepair:

“White flight in Atlanta had dire consequences for the Fox Theatre between 1960 and 1975…with the growth of suburban movie theaters and shopping centers, suburbanites in the Atlanta metropolitan area had little reason or need to travel into the city for entertainment anymore. With smaller numbers of entertainment seekers in the Peachtree theater district in the 1960s, the sheer size of the Fox made its primary role as a first-run movie theater a massive burden, as it was unable to attract capacity audiences. Because it could no longer profitably operate as a movie theater, it was reduced by the early 1970s to hosting rowdy rock concerts and screening raunchy exploitation films. Just as the Fox had stood as a symbol of central Atlanta’s growth and prosperity in the first half of the century, it stood in the mid 1970s, like the rest of the Midtown area, as a shadow of its former self—decayed, dilapidated, and nearly deserted” (179).

“Despite numerous proposals to save it, it appeared that the Fox Theatre was doomed to meet the wrecking ball in July 1974. The idea of repurposing an urban movie palace for live performances was not new. Several old movie palaces around the country had been restored and repurposed for various types of live performances by the mid-1970s…In an attempt to repeat the successes of these theaters, members of the Save the Fox campaign commissioned the firm of Hammer, Siler, George Associates in the summer of 1974 to perform a study that examined the reuse of other historic movie palaces, evaluated the Atlanta entertainment market, and projected the financial prospects of the Fox. The study concluded that a restored Fox Theatre could fill the city’s need for a live performance facility with its large seating capacity, aesthetics, and acoustics” (206).

“In the same month that Hammer, Siler, George Associates conducted their study, a nonprofit group was formed under the name Atlanta Landmarks, Incorporated, which began exploring available options to prevent the destruction of the Fox. Believing that the theater had great architectural and cultural value, the group set about raising the necessary funds to purchase the property, save the Fox, and repurpose it while celebrating its historical and cultural value to Atlanta” (208).

Renewal:

“The breakthrough that many were hoping for, however, came in 1975. Through considerable financial sacrifice by Joe Patten and other members of Atlanta Landmarks, an agreement was eventually reached with Southern Bell and Mosque, Inc. By acquiring adjacent parcels of land within the Fox Theatre block that were equal in value and acreage to the theater site, Atlanta Landmarks could then exchange the land parcels for the theater. Southern Bell then would obtain the parcels and a site for its new office building adjacent to the theater, and the Fox would remain standing under the ownership of Atlanta Landmarks. The compromise was a coup for the Save the Fox campaign, but Atlanta Landmarks was still left with $1.8 million dollars to raise to purchase the theater. Five banks loaned the remaining money for the purchase, with the due date for the principal amount set as June 20, 1978…To the delight of many in the city, Atlanta Landmarks acquired the title to the building on June 25, 1975 and began restoration work” (210-211).

",33.772408361769564,-84.38513368515015,[603,604],"First run theater Imitation of Life played here from December 7-13, 1934Conception:\"At first conceived by the Shriners fraternal order as a meeting hall, headquarters, and community center, the structure that would become the Fox Theatre was originally named the Shrine Mosque. As a prestigious fraternal organization that co-opted the aesthetics and mysticism of the Near East, the Atlanta Shriners wished to build an opulent structure in a Moorish or Middle Eastern motif like their counterparts in other cities while also providing the city of Atlanta with a civic auditorium and events center. Planning for this project began nearly fifteen years before the Fox opened on Christmas of 1929, but the Shriners were forced to overhaul their original plans several times during that fifteen-year span. When construction costs spiraled out of control in 1927, the Shriners enlisted the aid of film mogul William Fox, who expressed his desire to lease the Shrine Mosque’s proposed auditorium and operate it as the Fox Theatre, enabling the Shriners to continue their ambitious project” (Zarafonetis 42-43).Disrepair:“White flight in Atlanta had dire consequences for the Fox Theatre between 1960 and 1975…with the growth of suburban movie theaters and shopping centers, suburbanites in the Atlanta metropolitan area had little reason or need to travel into the city for entertainment anymore. With smaller numbers of entertainment seekers in the Peachtree theater district in the 1960s, the sheer size of the Fox made its primary role as a first-run movie theater a massive burden, as it was unable to attract capacity audiences. Because it could no longer profitably operate as a movie theater, it was reduced by the early 1970s to hosting rowdy rock concerts and screening raunchy exploitation films. Just as the Fox had stood as a symbol of central Atlanta’s growth and prosperity in the first half of the century, it stood in the mid 1970s, like the rest of the Midtown area, as a shadow of its former self—decayed, dilapidated, and nearly deserted” (179).“Despite numerous proposals to save it, it appeared that the Fox Theatre was doomed to meet the wrecking ball in July 1974. The idea of repurposing an urban movie palace for live performances was not new. Several old movie palaces around the country had been restored and repurposed for various types of live performances by the mid-1970s…In an attempt to repeat the successes of these theaters, members of the Save the Fox campaign commissioned the firm of Hammer, Siler, George Associates in the summer of 1974 to perform a study that examined the reuse of other historic movie palaces, evaluated the Atlanta entertainment market, and projected the financial prospects of the Fox. The study concluded that a restored Fox Theatre could fill the city’s need for a live performance facility with its large seating capacity, aesthetics, and acoustics” (206).“In the same month that Hammer, Siler, George Associates conducted their study, a nonprofit group was formed under the name Atlanta Landmarks, Incorporated, which began exploring available options to prevent the destruction of the Fox. Believing that the theater had great architectural and cultural value, the group set about raising the necessary funds to purchase the property, save the Fox, and repurpose it while celebrating its historical and cultural value to Atlanta” (208).Renewal:“The breakthrough that many were hoping for, however, came in 1975. Through considerable financial sacrifice by Joe Patten and other members of Atlanta Landmarks, an agreement was eventually reached with Southern Bell and Mosque, Inc. By acquiring adjacent parcels of land within the Fox Theatre block that were equal in value and acreage to the theater site, Atlanta Landmarks could then exchange the land parcels for the theater. Southern Bell then would obtain the parcels and a site for its new office building adjacent to the theater, and the Fox would remain standing under the ownership of Atlanta Landmarks. The compromise was a coup for the Save the Fox campaign, but Atlanta Landmarks was still left with $1.8 million dollars to raise to purchase the theater. Five banks loaned the remaining money for the purchase, with the due date for the principal amount set as June 20, 1978…To the delight of many in the city, Atlanta Landmarks acquired the title to the building on June 25, 1975 and began restoration work” (210-211).",[598,599,600,601,602,584],{"_73":596,"_134":-5,"_135":597},[],"fox-theatre-crop.jpg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/191srqlzurxc52338q1qr57j1ltb?variant=desktop","new-stop-1662150593132","fox-theater","fox-theater-december-7-13","fox-theater-december-7-13-1934","fox-theatre-december-7-13-1934",{"_108":614,"_105":22,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":596,"_147":615,"_34":616,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":596,"_158":-5},{"_108":605,"_105":35,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":606,"_147":607,"_34":608,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":606,"_158":-5},31,"fox.jpg",{"_159":609,"_161":610,"_163":611,"_165":612,"_166":613},33,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3okowolhz2h3if3ywlufwpfll564","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3okowolhz2h3if3ywlufwpfll564?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3okowolhz2h3if3ywlufwpfll564?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3okowolhz2h3if3ywlufwpfll564?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/3okowolhz2h3if3ywlufwpfll564?variant=lqip",32,{"_159":617,"_161":618,"_163":619,"_165":597,"_166":620},34,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/191srqlzurxc52338q1qr57j1ltb","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/191srqlzurxc52338q1qr57j1ltb?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/191srqlzurxc52338q1qr57j1ltb?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/191srqlzurxc52338q1qr57j1ltb?variant=lqip","new-tour-1661370162801","1934-1935-run-of-imitation-of-life-in-atlanta-movie-theaters","run-of-‘imitation-of-life’-in-atlanta-movie-theaters","run.PNG","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4irvmwwk7bqnolofv6qv6067rly5?variant=desktop",{"_108":375,"_34":22,"_73":633},{"_108":272,"_34":35,"_73":632},{"_108":275,"_34":485,"_73":631},{"_108":139,"_34":525,"_73":630},"WALKING","TRANSIT","DRIVING","BICYCLING",{"_108":22,"_105":22,"_134":-5,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":624,"_147":635,"_34":525,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":624,"_158":-5},{"_159":636,"_161":637,"_163":638,"_165":625,"_166":639},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4irvmwwk7bqnolofv6qv6067rly5","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4irvmwwk7bqnolofv6qv6067rly5?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4irvmwwk7bqnolofv6qv6067rly5?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4irvmwwk7bqnolofv6qv6067rly5?variant=lqip",{"_105":22,"_108":22,"_34":22,"_73":647,"_63":648,"_644":649,"_122":24,"_646":22},{"_105":35,"_108":35,"_34":35,"_73":642,"_63":643,"_644":645,"_122":24,"_646":22},"Credits","credits","body","This tour was assembled by Steve Bransford, Joe Larios, and Josh Winston.","tour_count","Sources","sources","

“Ashby Street Theatre.” The Georgia Trust for Historic Preservation, https://www.georgiatrust.org/places-in-peril/ashby-street-theatre/. Accessed 28 September 2022.

Bernstein, Matthew H. and Dana F. White. \"Imitation of Life in a Segregated Atlanta: Its Promotion, Distribution and Reception.\" Film History, vol. 19 (2007): 152-178.

Cinema Treasures. Cinema Treasures LLC, 2022, http://cinematreasures.org/. Accessed 28 September 2022.

Emerson, Bo and J.D. Capelouto. \"‘A theater of our own’: The Ashby brought movies to a Black audience.\" The Atlanta Journal Constitution, https://www.ajc.com/news/atlanta-news/a-theater-of-our-own-the-ashby-brought-movies-to-a-black-audience/TR4WIV2HORDEFKDHPECK22LBJY/. Accessed 28 September 2022.

Zarafonetis, Michael James. The 'Fabulous' Fox Theatre and Atlanta, 1929-1975 [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Auburn University, 2010.

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Intro

This tour takes you through the history of the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mill strike as it began on May 20, 1914 and lasted for almost a year. It is primarily based on the book Contesting the New South Order: The 1914-1915 Strike at Atlanta’s Fulton Mills by Clifford Kuhn (Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press, 2001). All quotes are from Kuhn unless otherwise noted. Excerpts from Contesting the New South Order are used with permission from University of North Carolina Press.

Background:

As Georgia emerged from the Civil War and Reconstruction, new industries and new forms of conflict also emerged. Workers fought bosses on factory grounds, clashes between labor movements and factory owners that would help shape the Progressive Era. The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mill strike began in 1914 and represented a tumultuous and politically explosive event in Atlanta's history. Clifford M Kuhn writes:

Atlanta during this period was a rapidly growing city that in many ways epitomized the tensions between traditional ways and modern times that marked the New South. Within two years of the Fulton strike, the city experienced animated public debates over child labor and Sunday movies, a successful campaign to clean up the local red-light district, a major streetcar strike and the Leo Frank case (5).

Before the 1914 strike happened, a 1913 strike set the stage. This strike began as a result of the increasing animosities between mill management and the workers; a conflict born out of the increasingly strenuous and exploitative working conditions of the mill. Stringent operational regulations were put in place to increase worker productivity, but these new rules increased tensions between mill bosses and employees. On October 18,1913, factory boss Oscar Elsas fired loom fixer William Fowler over a violation of the company's new operational regulations. On October 20, over a third of the company's employees walked out in response to Fowler’s firing, a reaction to the unfair working conditions. Kuhn writes:

Led by the loom fixers, by noon on Monday, 20th October, some 200 mostly male workers at mill No 2. walked out. According to the Journal of Labor, those who left were not ‘floaters’ but rather longtime employees of the mills, a claim substantiated by payroll records. Protesting the overall strictness of the mills regulations and declaring that it was Fowler's transgression of an unjust rule that that caused his dismissal, the strikers demanded his reinstatement[...] (91)

The strike ended within a few days. On October 23rd, a committee of workers met with Elsas and other company representatives to discuss the situation. Management refused to consider ‘unrealistic’ demands that Fowler and McElhannon be reinstated and that Johnstone and Metzger be discharged.[...] Workers did gain a victory, however; the company agreed to their demand that the rule requiring six days pay be withheld revert to five. By the end of the week, essentially all Futon workers had returned to their jobs (92).

This experience, though short-lived, was significant for two reasons. It demonstrated the potential efficacy of striking to the mill workers and it made clear to Elsas that this was something to be on the lookout for. As Kuhn continues:

A week after the strike ended, payroll was back to its prewalkout level, and business as usual seemed to have been restored. But the strike set in motion escalating actions and reactions among both workers and management… One week later, eleven section men from the card and picker rooms of both Mill No. 1 and No. 2 petitioned to Oscar Elsas for a wage increase from $1.75 to $2.00 a day… Mill management quickly took action to monitor and eliminate such incipient worker activism. Before the short-lived October strike was even over, Johnstone sent Oscar Elsas a series of memos that named the workers who had first demanded Fowler’s reinstatement; provided details about the arrested strikers and those who swore in court against Johnstone (93)

Although the October strike had been a spontaneous effort not connected to any previously established union, workers now became interested in establishing a more permanent organization. Many of those involved in organizing would be dismissed, leading to further tension and animosity between the workers and Elsas (95). A union would, nevertheless, be established and:

In the spring of1914, Fleming and two other mill workers became the first textile worker delegates in years to attend the Georgia Federation of Labor (GFL) annual convention. At the meeting, Fleming reported a large union membership already enrolled and paying dues and made an ‘impassioned plea’ for delegates to help textile organizing attempts in their own communities. By this time, what had begun as an independent initiative by Fulton workers had coincided, then dovetailed with the first national campaign to organize southern mill hands in over a decade. (98)

Accordingly, as these campaigns took off, Fulton Mills and others took aggressive steps to try and stop them (99).

On 20 April, six months to the day after the October walkout, the UTW called a special meeting of Local 886 and signed up a large number of workers. Two days later, office staff member J. H. Baker wrote Johnstone that bag mill workers Fannie May Sisk and Lula Lewis had been identified as union members. By the end of the week, the two women were gone from the mill. Over the next three weeks, eleven identified activists from the fall, including Local 886 treasurer George Christian, left the company’s employment. By mid-May, fewer than a fourth of those workers identified by Johnstone as activists after the October walkout still remained at Fulton Mills. The UTW tried to retaliate and also extended its Atlanta efforts beyond Fulton Mills. Around 1 May, the union issued handbills announcing a meeting of the ‘Loomfixers, Weavers, Spinners, Carders and other Operatives’ of the Exposition Mill. (102)

The possibility of a strike at Fulton Mills dominated the meeting…As rumors of a strike abounded, the UTW invited only Fulton workers to another meeting on 5 May at the Odd Fellows Hall on Decatur Street, a half mile from the plant… At the meeting, workers voted to strike, only to be dissuaded by Miles, who said he needed to meet first with other union officials. (104)

After leaving to meet with other union officials, the situation continued to deteriorate. On May 19, a letter was sent to Elsas detailing their grievances about the dismissals of workers for being union members. It is disputed whether or not Elsas ever actually received the letter, but the practical consequence was that Fulton workers continued to feel ignored and aggrieved. That night, another meeting was held where:

Fulton workers heatedly discussed the situation. During the meeting, a telegram from Charles Miles was read, which said, ‘to the effect,’ according to Marks, ‘that they [the UTW] could not guarantee the regular strike benefit to all of those affected, if a strike was called, but would give all the support morally and financially that they could give but they would not bind themselves to anything definite.’ Despite such cautionary words, after some debate members of Local 886 then cast a secret strike ballot, with approximately 350 in favor of striking and only three opposed. The strike was on. (106)

",[1148,1149],[1147],"Intro This tour takes you through the history of the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mill strike as it began on May 20, 1914 and lasted for almost a year. It is primarily based on the book Contesting the New South Order: The 1914-1915 Strike at Atlanta’s Fulton Mills by Clifford Kuhn (Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press, 2001). All quotes are from Kuhn unless otherwise noted. Excerpts from Contesting the New South Order are used with permission from University of North Carolina Press. Background:As Georgia emerged from the Civil War and Reconstruction, new industries and new forms of conflict also emerged. Workers fought bosses on factory grounds, clashes between labor movements and factory owners that would help shape the Progressive Era. The Fulton Bag and Cotton Mill strike began in 1914 and represented a tumultuous and politically explosive event in Atlanta's history. Clifford M Kuhn writes:Atlanta during this period was a rapidly growing city that in many ways epitomized the tensions between traditional ways and modern times that marked the New South. Within two years of the Fulton strike, the city experienced animated public debates over child labor and Sunday movies, a successful campaign to clean up the local red-light district, a major streetcar strike and the Leo Frank case (5).Before the 1914 strike happened, a 1913 strike set the stage. This strike began as a result of the increasing animosities between mill management and the workers; a conflict born out of the increasingly strenuous and exploitative working conditions of the mill. Stringent operational regulations were put in place to increase worker productivity, but these new rules increased tensions between mill bosses and employees. On October 18,1913, factory boss Oscar Elsas fired loom fixer William Fowler over a violation of the company's new operational regulations. On October 20, over a third of the company's employees walked out in response to Fowler’s firing, a reaction to the unfair working conditions. Kuhn writes: Led by the loom fixers, by noon on Monday, 20th October, some 200 mostly male workers at mill No 2. walked out. According to the Journal of Labor, those who left were not ‘floaters’ but rather longtime employees of the mills, a claim substantiated by payroll records. Protesting the overall strictness of the mills regulations and declaring that it was Fowler's transgression of an unjust rule that that caused his dismissal, the strikers demanded his reinstatement[...] (91)The strike ended within a few days. On October 23rd, a committee of workers met with Elsas and other company representatives to discuss the situation. Management refused to consider ‘unrealistic’ demands that Fowler and McElhannon be reinstated and that Johnstone and Metzger be discharged.[...] Workers did gain a victory, however; the company agreed to their demand that the rule requiring six days pay be withheld revert to five. By the end of the week, essentially all Futon workers had returned to their jobs (92).This experience, though short-lived, was significant for two reasons. It demonstrated the potential efficacy of striking to the mill workers and it made clear to Elsas that this was something to be on the lookout for. As Kuhn continues:A week after the strike ended, payroll was back to its prewalkout level, and business as usual seemed to have been restored. But the strike set in motion escalating actions and reactions among both workers and management… One week later, eleven section men from the card and picker rooms of both Mill No. 1 and No. 2 petitioned to Oscar Elsas for a wage increase from $1.75 to $2.00 a day… Mill management quickly took action to monitor and eliminate such incipient worker activism. Before the short-lived October strike was even over, Johnstone sent Oscar Elsas a series of memos that named the workers who had first demanded Fowler’s reinstatement; provided details about the arrested strikers and those who swore in court against Johnstone (93)Although the October strike had been a spontaneous effort not connected to any previously established union, workers now became interested in establishing a more permanent organization. Many of those involved in organizing would be dismissed, leading to further tension and animosity between the workers and Elsas (95). A union would, nevertheless, be established and:In the spring of1914, Fleming and two other mill workers became the first textile worker delegates in years to attend the Georgia Federation of Labor (GFL) annual convention. At the meeting, Fleming reported a large union membership already enrolled and paying dues and made an ‘impassioned plea’ for delegates to help textile organizing attempts in their own communities. By this time, what had begun as an independent initiative by Fulton workers had coincided, then dovetailed with the first national campaign to organize southern mill hands in over a decade. (98)Accordingly, as these campaigns took off, Fulton Mills and others took aggressive steps to try and stop them (99).On 20 April, six months to the day after the October walkout, the UTW called a special meeting of Local 886 and signed up a large number of workers. Two days later, office staff member J. H. Baker wrote Johnstone that bag mill workers Fannie May Sisk and Lula Lewis had been identified as union members. By the end of the week, the two women were gone from the mill. Over the next three weeks, eleven identified activists from the fall, including Local 886 treasurer George Christian, left the company’s employment. By mid-May, fewer than a fourth of those workers identified by Johnstone as activists after the October walkout still remained at Fulton Mills. The UTW tried to retaliate and also extended its Atlanta efforts beyond Fulton Mills. Around 1 May, the union issued handbills announcing a meeting of the ‘Loomfixers, Weavers, Spinners, Carders and other Operatives’ of the Exposition Mill. (102)The possibility of a strike at Fulton Mills dominated the meeting…As rumors of a strike abounded, the UTW invited only Fulton workers to another meeting on 5 May at the Odd Fellows Hall on Decatur Street, a half mile from the plant… At the meeting, workers voted to strike, only to be dissuaded by Miles, who said he needed to meet first with other union officials. (104)After leaving to meet with other union officials, the situation continued to deteriorate. On May 19, a letter was sent to Elsas detailing their grievances about the dismissals of workers for being union members. It is disputed whether or not Elsas ever actually received the letter, but the practical consequence was that Fulton workers continued to feel ignored and aggrieved. That night, another meeting was held where:Fulton workers heatedly discussed the situation. During the meeting, a telegram from Charles Miles was read, which said, ‘to the effect,’ according to Marks, ‘that they [the UTW] could not guarantee the regular strike benefit to all of those affected, if a strike was called, but would give all the support morally and financially that they could give but they would not bind themselves to anything definite.’ Despite such cautionary words, after some debate members of Local 886 then cast a secret strike ballot, with approximately 350 in favor of striking and only three opposed. The strike was on. (106)",{"_34":525,"_73":630},[1143,1144,1145,1146],"16 minutes reading",{"_73":1140,"_134":1141,"_135":1142},"1914-1915-strike-at-the-fulton-bag-and-cotton-mills",[1139,672],[679,680,681,682,683,684,685,686,687,688,689,690,691,692,693,694,695],"1914-1915 strike at the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills","About 2 hours 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Memorial Dr SE #100, Atlanta, GA 30316, USA","

“On 28 August, the strike leaders announced plans to close down the union commissary and establish a tent colony for strikers a half mile southeast of the plant. The idea was to eliminate the costs associated with housing strikers, winnow out the stragglers who had flocked to the commissary, and thus try to regain control over a rapidly unraveling situation. In deciding to move to the tents, the organizers also were well aware of the recent national public out-pouring of sympathy for the tent colony of displaced miners and their families in Ludlow, Colorado. They knew that the placement of Fulton workers in tents could reap a publicity bonanza and invigorate union efforts” (Kuhn 190).

“The move to the tents set off a two-front war in which management and labor engaged throughout the fall, not only renewing interest in the strike beyond the city’s boundaries but having implications for the people most directly involved. Although some strikers were attracted by the ‘novelty’ of living in tents, others expressed ‘considerable dissatisfaction’ with and even ‘open rebellion’ toward the prospect. Many workers vowed they would return to Fulton Mills before living in tents; others feared that the organizers would get them in tents and then abandon them. Such misgivings certainly intensified during the first rain-filled days of the colony’s existence, when many of the tents, mainly Georgia National Guard rejects, got drenched and collapsed” (190-191)

“After a shaky start, the tent colony got off the ground and would remain in existence in some form until May 1915. The establishment of the camp enabled organizers to revive picketing for a while, too. By 11 September, regular picketing had resumed outside the mill; by 19 September, there were twenty-eight union pickets outside the plant gates; by 22 September, informant James I. Brush counted forty-one pickets. Moreover, despite all the tribulations of camp life and the strike more generally, some workers remained committed to the principles that had brought them out in the first place…Yet union organizers faced an uphill battle in sustaining local support. Robert Wright and others felt that most of the tent colony residents, like the patrons of the commissary, were ‘hoboes and tramps’ who had never worked a day at Fulton Mills” (192).

“On 2 September, one of the tent colony residents stabbed Pat Calahan, a union sheet metal worker who had been active in strike support since the summer. From the time the camp was set up, accounts abounded of prostitutes and other sexually active women living in the camp, venereal disease, and almost nightly drunkenness” (193).

",33.7464813,-84.3619125,[709],"“On 28 August, the strike leaders announced plans to close down the union commissary and establish a tent colony for strikers a half mile southeast of the plant. The idea was to eliminate the costs associated with housing strikers, winnow out the stragglers who had flocked to the commissary, and thus try to regain control over a rapidly unraveling situation. In deciding to move to the tents, the organizers also were well aware of the recent national public out-pouring of sympathy for the tent colony of displaced miners and their families in Ludlow, Colorado. They knew that the placement of Fulton workers in tents could reap a publicity bonanza and invigorate union efforts” (Kuhn 190).“The move to the tents set off a two-front war in which management and labor engaged throughout the fall, not only renewing interest in the strike beyond the city’s boundaries but having implications for the people most directly involved. Although some strikers were attracted by the ‘novelty’ of living in tents, others expressed ‘considerable dissatisfaction’ with and even ‘open rebellion’ toward the prospect. Many workers vowed they would return to Fulton Mills before living in tents; others feared that the organizers would get them in tents and then abandon them. Such misgivings certainly intensified during the first rain-filled days of the colony’s existence, when many of the tents, mainly Georgia National Guard rejects, got drenched and collapsed” (190-191)“After a shaky start, the tent colony got off the ground and would remain in existence in some form until May 1915. The establishment of the camp enabled organizers to revive picketing for a while, too. By 11 September, regular picketing had resumed outside the mill; by 19 September, there were twenty-eight union pickets outside the plant gates; by 22 September, informant James I. Brush counted forty-one pickets. Moreover, despite all the tribulations of camp life and the strike more generally, some workers remained committed to the principles that had brought them out in the first place…Yet union organizers faced an uphill battle in sustaining local support. Robert Wright and others felt that most of the tent colony residents, like the patrons of the commissary, were ‘hoboes and tramps’ who had never worked a day at Fulton Mills” (192).“On 2 September, one of the tent colony residents stabbed Pat Calahan, a union sheet metal worker who had been active in strike support since the summer. From the time the camp was set up, accounts abounded of prostitutes and other sexually active women living in the camp, venereal disease, and almost nightly drunkenness” (193).","establishment-of-tent-city",[707,708,703],"Establishment of tent city",[],"new-stop-1661961311636","777-memorial-dr-se-100-atlanta-ga-30316",{"_108":253,"_105":140},38,"baptist-tabernacle","Baptist Tabernacle",{"_34":149,"_63":703,"_73":705},{"_34":616,"_63":736,"_73":737},"152 Luckie St NW, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","“On July 12 another mass meeting was held at the Baptist Tabernacle to discuss strike issues and the problems of capital and labor in general. The 800 who attended heard representatives of three different interests: S. B. Marks spoke for organized labor; Robert C. Alston, an Atlanta lawyer, spoke for capital; and John Eagan, president of the Men and Religion Forward Movement, discussed the need to apply Christian principles to the solution of labor problems. After Eagan's speech a laborer in attendance shouted, ‘We have been waiting for nineteen hundred years for Christ to solve our problems and they are yet unsolved; it is time for us to get busy ourselves!’” (Lefever 530-531)",33.7586855,-84.3914582,[727],"“On July 12 another mass meeting was held at the Baptist Tabernacle to discuss strike issues and the problems of capital and labor in general. The 800 who attended heard representatives of three different interests: S. B. Marks spoke for organized labor; Robert C. Alston, an Atlanta lawyer, spoke for capital; and John Eagan, president of the Men and Religion Forward Movement, discussed the need to apply Christian principles to the solution of labor problems. After Eagan's speech a laborer in attendance shouted, ‘We have been waiting for nineteen hundred years for Christ to solve our problems and they are yet unsolved; it is time for us to get busy ourselves!’” (Lefever 530-531)",[711,726],{"_73":712,"_134":724,"_135":725},[],"Atlanta Journal-Constitution Photographic Archive of the Georgia State University Library","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4oc1cfisf6u4zpq1iutlfumu1b6k?variant=desktop","new-stop-1667418412064",{"_108":728,"_105":140,"_134":724,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":729,"_147":730,"_34":731,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":712,"_158":-5},60,"baptist-tabernacle.jpg",{"_159":732,"_161":733,"_163":734,"_165":725,"_166":735},66,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4oc1cfisf6u4zpq1iutlfumu1b6k","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4oc1cfisf6u4zpq1iutlfumu1b6k?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4oc1cfisf6u4zpq1iutlfumu1b6k?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/4oc1cfisf6u4zpq1iutlfumu1b6k?variant=lqip","east-fair-street","East Fair Street",{"_34":710,"_63":711,"_73":712},{"_34":762,"_63":763,"_73":764},"Boulevard SE & Memorial Dr SE, Atlanta, GA 30312, USA","“East Fair Street was not a random spot, either, but rather constituted the third strategic site near the mill where union pickets regularly assembled. Located at the edge of the mill district and on an east-west streetcar line, it also traversed Boulevard, the principal road leading to Fulton Mills from the south. Large crowds could gather on a nearby vacant lot. In addition, new recruits were put up in several large East Fair boardinghouses, which became particular targets of strikers and their supporters” (129)",33.7466983,-84.3681086,[753],"“East Fair Street was not a random spot, either, but rather constituted the third strategic site near the mill where union pickets regularly assembled. Located at the edge of the mill district and on an east-west streetcar line, it also traversed Boulevard, the principal road leading to Fulton Mills from the south. Large crowds could gather on a nearby vacant lot. In addition, new recruits were put up in several large East Fair boardinghouses, which became particular targets of strikers and their supporters” (129)",[752,736],{"_73":749,"_134":750,"_135":751},[],"Fair Street Streetcar","Atlanta History Photograph Collection of the Atlanta History Center's Kenan Research Center","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/sm21k55mhdlwj2rxjqg644y9nks7?variant=desktop","new-stop-1667412010430",{"_108":754,"_105":140,"_134":750,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":755,"_147":756,"_34":757,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":749,"_158":-5},56,"fair street trolley.png",{"_159":758,"_161":759,"_163":760,"_165":751,"_166":761},62,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/sm21k55mhdlwj2rxjqg644y9nks7","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/sm21k55mhdlwj2rxjqg644y9nks7?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/sm21k55mhdlwj2rxjqg644y9nks7?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/sm21k55mhdlwj2rxjqg644y9nks7?variant=lqip",30,"harris-gober-s-grocery-store","Harris Gober's grocery store",{"_34":616,"_63":736,"_73":737},{"_34":139,"_63":789,"_73":790},"24 Carroll St SE, Atlanta, GA 30312, USA","

“Another site for pickets was outside Harris Gober’s grocery store at 24 Carroll Street, directly across from the rear entrance into the plant adjoining the mill district, and just around the corner from the union commissary on Tennelle Street. Not only was the store already strategically located, but pro-strike forces also blocked an alley leading onto Carroll Street farther south, thus funneling many people walking to work right in front of Gober’s store and the commissary. Gober had been a staunch supporter of Fulton workers in their protests at least since the walkout of October 1913, and by March, as union organizing progressed, he and his boarders had been targeted by management as potential troublemakers. On the first day of the strike, when police asked the strikers not to congregate on the street, it was to Gober’s store that they withdrew. Gober reportedly was also a member of the crowd who stoned the switching train on 25 May. He also cut off the credit of one worker who did not go out on strike, joined picket teams, and provided his car for union organizers. His store, which was literally in the shadow of the mill, thus offered a safe haven and rallying place for the strikers and their supporters. Members of the mill’s internal surveillance network closely monitored the goings-on around Gober’s store. Company informants reported nearby altercations, efforts to turn workers away and get them to join the union, and the friendly relationship between Gober and strike leaders and supporters” (127-128).

",33.7507738,-84.3680219,[780],"“Another site for pickets was outside Harris Gober’s grocery store at 24 Carroll Street, directly across from the rear entrance into the plant adjoining the mill district, and just around the corner from the union commissary on Tennelle Street. Not only was the store already strategically located, but pro-strike forces also blocked an alley leading onto Carroll Street farther south, thus funneling many people walking to work right in front of Gober’s store and the commissary. Gober had been a staunch supporter of Fulton workers in their protests at least since the walkout of October 1913, and by March, as union organizing progressed, he and his boarders had been targeted by management as potential troublemakers. On the first day of the strike, when police asked the strikers not to congregate on the street, it was to Gober’s store that they withdrew. Gober reportedly was also a member of the crowd who stoned the switching train on 25 May. He also cut off the credit of one worker who did not go out on strike, joined picket teams, and provided his car for union organizers. His store, which was literally in the shadow of the mill, thus offered a safe haven and rallying place for the strikers and their supporters. Members of the mill’s internal surveillance network closely monitored the goings-on around Gober’s store. Company informants reported nearby altercations, efforts to turn workers away and get them to join the union, and the friendly relationship between Gober and strike leaders and supporters” (127-128).",[779,763],{"_73":776,"_134":777,"_135":778},[],"Carroll Street","Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills Digital Collection, Georgia Tech Archives and Records Management","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ck7td50nrmracqxfm9xo3m1n9cwt?variant=desktop","new-stop-1666805092435",{"_108":781,"_105":140,"_134":777,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":782,"_147":783,"_34":784,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":776,"_158":-5},52,"carroll st.jpg",{"_159":785,"_161":786,"_163":787,"_165":778,"_166":788},58,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ck7td50nrmracqxfm9xo3m1n9cwt","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ck7td50nrmracqxfm9xo3m1n9cwt?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ck7td50nrmracqxfm9xo3m1n9cwt?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ck7td50nrmracqxfm9xo3m1n9cwt?variant=lqip","stopping-strikebreakers-at-boulevard-underpass","Stopping strikebreakers at Boulevard underpass",{"_34":762,"_63":763,"_73":764},{"_34":608,"_63":815,"_73":816},"170 Boulevard SE #A105, Atlanta, GA 30312, USA","

“Union pickets and strike supporters attempted to turn back would-be workers at other sites, too. For instance, on the evening of 12 June, at the Boulevard underpass leading to Fulton Mills, seven or eight men stopped a driver from the Atlanta Baggage and Cab Company carrying four recruits from the Terminal Station. They turned his horse around, ordered him to get away as fast as he could, and told him in no uncertain terms not to bring any more fares to the mill. These efforts to turn away strikebreakers often involved prior coordination. A labor spy reported that there were pickets at every entrance into town, with each suspicious arrival phoned into the union commissary. The Boulevard underpass was not an arbitrary meeting place. It was used because it was well concealed, near Decatur Street and a streetcar line, and situated on the only route into the mill from the north. Therefore, it was one of several strategic locations where strikers and their supporters regularly congregated to head off new recruits as well as others still working in the mill” (127)

","

",33.750814738574846,-84.37064097724608,[803,804],"“Union pickets and strike supporters attempted to turn back would-be workers at other sites, too. For instance, on the evening of 12 June, at the Boulevard underpass leading to Fulton Mills, seven or eight men stopped a driver from the Atlanta Baggage and Cab Company carrying four recruits from the Terminal Station. They turned his horse around, ordered him to get away as fast as he could, and told him in no uncertain terms not to bring any more fares to the mill. These efforts to turn away strikebreakers often involved prior coordination. A labor spy reported that there were pickets at every entrance into town, with each suspicious arrival phoned into the union commissary. The Boulevard underpass was not an arbitrary meeting place. It was used because it was well concealed, near Decatur Street and a streetcar line, and situated on the only route into the mill from the north. Therefore, it was one of several strategic locations where strikers and their supporters regularly congregated to head off new recruits as well as others still working in the mill” (127)",[802,789],[],"new-stop-1661961034961",{"_108":356,"_105":140},{"_108":805,"_105":22,"_134":806,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":807,"_147":808,"_34":781,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":809,"_158":-5},46,"Taken from Kuhn, Clifford M. Contesting the New South Order: The 1914-1915 Strike at Atlanta's Fulton Mills. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001.","map-bu.PNG",{"_159":810,"_161":811,"_163":812,"_165":813,"_166":814},"Map of Fulton Mill District","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/07n6clqjvujeqhtrwj7v6gop23ni","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/07n6clqjvujeqhtrwj7v6gop23ni?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/07n6clqjvujeqhtrwj7v6gop23ni?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/07n6clqjvujeqhtrwj7v6gop23ni?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/07n6clqjvujeqhtrwj7v6gop23ni?variant=lqip","terminal-station","Terminal Station",{"_34":139,"_63":789,"_73":790},{"_34":187,"_63":840,"_73":841},"Richard B. Russell Federal Building, 75 Ted Turner Dr SW, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","“New recruits coming in by rail faced being confronted by designated union pickets who regularly gathered at Atlanta’s two downtown train stations. Adopting what Oscar Elsas accurately termed ‘aggressive’ behavior, the pickets were successful in turning away some of the newcomers. On 7 June, for instance, the pickets persuaded three new arrivals from Columbus not to work at Fulton Mills. Another dissuaded Columbus recruit, a former Fulton worker, later described his experience in a letter to Oscar Elsas. ‘I came back here to go to work,’ he wrote, ‘but I was met at the train by a crowd of strikers.’ The only one in the group he recognized was Cliff Stevens, who, with his family, had been evicted from company housing. Stevens, he stated, ‘told me all kinds of things about you [Elsas] and your mill and kept me under gard [sic] just like I [was] a [prisoner] and threatened violence.’ According to this recruit, Stevens also made threats against those still in the mill. ‘I have worked for you before 5 or 6 years ago,’ concluded the author, who signed only his initials for fear of reprisals from strikers. ‘Your company treated me right and I don’t feel right to go back with[out] explaning [sic] to you for I don’t want to work hard [all day] and be bothered at night with them strikers.’ Elsas quickly moved to address the situation. On 9 June, he sent a memo to Charles A. Wickersham of Atlanta’s Terminal Station, stating that he would help station officers locate pickets so they could be removed from the premises. On 22 June, he wrote another letter to R. T. Pace, the superintendent of the station. In it, he alluded to a conversation with Wickersham about the pickets, mentioned that mill representatives recently had seen pickets around the depot, and attempted to clarify Wickersham’s order to keep pickets off the Terminal grounds. In response, Pace pledged his support to prevent pickets from congregating at the station” (Kuhn 125-127).",33.7533939,-84.39580199999999,[831],"“New recruits coming in by rail faced being confronted by designated union pickets who regularly gathered at Atlanta’s two downtown train stations. Adopting what Oscar Elsas accurately termed ‘aggressive’ behavior, the pickets were successful in turning away some of the newcomers. On 7 June, for instance, the pickets persuaded three new arrivals from Columbus not to work at Fulton Mills. Another dissuaded Columbus recruit, a former Fulton worker, later described his experience in a letter to Oscar Elsas. ‘I came back here to go to work,’ he wrote, ‘but I was met at the train by a crowd of strikers.’ The only one in the group he recognized was Cliff Stevens, who, with his family, had been evicted from company housing. Stevens, he stated, ‘told me all kinds of things about you [Elsas] and your mill and kept me under gard [sic] just like I [was] a [prisoner] and threatened violence.’ According to this recruit, Stevens also made threats against those still in the mill. ‘I have worked for you before 5 or 6 years ago,’ concluded the author, who signed only his initials for fear of reprisals from strikers. ‘Your company treated me right and I don’t feel right to go back with[out] explaning [sic] to you for I don’t want to work hard [all day] and be bothered at night with them strikers.’ Elsas quickly moved to address the situation. On 9 June, he sent a memo to Charles A. Wickersham of Atlanta’s Terminal Station, stating that he would help station officers locate pickets so they could be removed from the premises. On 22 June, he wrote another letter to R. T. Pace, the superintendent of the station. In it, he alluded to a conversation with Wickersham about the pickets, mentioned that mill representatives recently had seen pickets around the depot, and attempted to clarify Wickersham’s order to keep pickets off the Terminal grounds. In response, Pace pledged his support to prevent pickets from congregating at the station” (Kuhn 125-127).",[829,830,815],{"_73":816,"_134":724,"_135":828},[],"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/rbf9yd9rh0pvkuw73i0patd7fapg?variant=desktop","new-stop-1667409352672","terminal",{"_108":832,"_105":140,"_134":724,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":833,"_147":834,"_34":835,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":816,"_158":-5},55,"terminal-station.png",{"_159":836,"_161":837,"_163":838,"_165":828,"_166":839},61,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/rbf9yd9rh0pvkuw73i0patd7fapg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/rbf9yd9rh0pvkuw73i0patd7fapg?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/rbf9yd9rh0pvkuw73i0patd7fapg?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/rbf9yd9rh0pvkuw73i0patd7fapg?variant=lqip","grand-opera-house","Grand Opera House",{"_34":608,"_63":815,"_73":816},{"_34":272,"_63":865,"_73":866},"157 Peachtree St NE, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","

“the [Men and Religion Forward] Movement helped to organize public meetings at which mill conditions and other circumstances involved in the strike were discussed. A mass meeting held at the Grand Opera House in Atlanta on Sunday, June 28, 1914, was attended by roughly 2,000 people. The speakers included three key Movement officers: Rev. C. B. Wilmer, rector of St. Luke's Episcopal Church; Rev. John E. White, pastor of the Second Baptist Church; and Marion M. Jackson, president of the Atlanta YMCA. Describing the meeting as ‘historic,’ the editor of The Journal of Labor expressed his thanks to Messrs. Wilmer, Jackson, Eagan ‘and their golden-hearted, justice-loving co-laborers (the latchets of whose shoes the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills' bosses are unworthy to loosen)’ for organization. The Constitution, giving this meeting front-page coverage, focused on Marion Jackson's speech, ‘The Coming of the Kingdom of God. The speech began by recounting the history of the Jews and their constant struggles for freedom and justice. It cited Moses as the leader of the first strike—that of the Israelites against slavery to Pharaoh in the brick yards of Egypt. Jackson then appealed to the Jewish owners of the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills to be true to their tradition: ‘The Jews in Atlanta may not hold to the same religious beliefs that I hold to, but they recognize the principles of right and justice on which that religion is founded.’” (Lefever 528)

",33.757979,-84.3876037,[856],"“the [Men and Religion Forward] Movement helped to organize public meetings at which mill conditions and other circumstances involved in the strike were discussed. A mass meeting held at the Grand Opera House in Atlanta on Sunday, June 28, 1914, was attended by roughly 2,000 people. The speakers included three key Movement officers: Rev. C. B. Wilmer, rector of St. Luke's Episcopal Church; Rev. John E. White, pastor of the Second Baptist Church; and Marion M. Jackson, president of the Atlanta YMCA. Describing the meeting as ‘historic,’ the editor of The Journal of Labor expressed his thanks to Messrs. Wilmer, Jackson, Eagan ‘and their golden-hearted, justice-loving co-laborers (the latchets of whose shoes the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills' bosses are unworthy to loosen)’ for organization. The Constitution, giving this meeting front-page coverage, focused on Marion Jackson's speech, ‘The Coming of the Kingdom of God. The speech began by recounting the history of the Jews and their constant struggles for freedom and justice. It cited Moses as the leader of the first strike—that of the Israelites against slavery to Pharaoh in the brick yards of Egypt. Jackson then appealed to the Jewish owners of the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills to be true to their tradition: ‘The Jews in Atlanta may not hold to the same religious beliefs that I hold to, but they recognize the principles of right and justice on which that religion is founded.’” (Lefever 528)",[855,840],{"_73":841,"_134":853,"_135":854},[],"Postcard Collection of the Atlanta History Center's Kenan Research Center","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8qbaxv119ex1w5f0sk4ukw9eqrcu?variant=desktop","new-stop-1667417358537",{"_108":857,"_105":140,"_134":853,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":858,"_147":859,"_34":860,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":841,"_158":-5},59,"GOH.png",{"_159":861,"_161":862,"_163":863,"_165":854,"_166":864},65,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8qbaxv119ex1w5f0sk4ukw9eqrcu","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8qbaxv119ex1w5f0sk4ukw9eqrcu?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8qbaxv119ex1w5f0sk4ukw9eqrcu?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8qbaxv119ex1w5f0sk4ukw9eqrcu?variant=lqip","strike-parade-film-footage-shown-at-atlanta-theater","Strike parade film footage shown at Atlanta Theater",{"_34":187,"_63":840,"_73":841},{"_34":605,"_63":893,"_73":894},"8 Park Pl NE, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","

“The UTW hired the local branch of the New York–based Sphinx Film Company to film evictions and other strike scenes. In addition, a representative of the Hearst-Selig News Pictorial outfit filmed the union’s 6 June parade. Smith and Miles then showed the parade footage at the downtown Atlanta Theater, admitting all union members free, thus providing workers with the unusual and no doubt affirming experience of seeing themselves in the movies” (158).

",33.754733675322775,-84.38832545550842,[885],"“The UTW hired the local branch of the New York–based Sphinx Film Company to film evictions and other strike scenes. In addition, a representative of the Hearst-Selig News Pictorial outfit filmed the union’s 6 June parade. Smith and Miles then showed the parade footage at the downtown Atlanta Theater, admitting all union members free, thus providing workers with the unusual and no doubt affirming experience of seeing themselves in the movies” (158).",[881,882,883,884,865],{"_73":878,"_134":879,"_135":880},[],"Atlanta Theatre","http://cinematreasures.org/theaters/21372/photos","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/1jmghb8kszs4eehc43nkpy5zskpl?variant=desktop","new-stop-1661960684606","a","atlanta-theater","strike-atlanta-theater",{"_108":327,"_105":140,"_134":879,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":886,"_147":887,"_34":888,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":878,"_158":-5},"atlanta-theatre.jpg",{"_159":889,"_161":890,"_163":891,"_165":880,"_166":892},51,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/1jmghb8kszs4eehc43nkpy5zskpl","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/1jmghb8kszs4eehc43nkpy5zskpl?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/1jmghb8kszs4eehc43nkpy5zskpl?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/1jmghb8kszs4eehc43nkpy5zskpl?variant=lqip","milton-nunley-photo","Milton Nunley Photo",{"_34":272,"_63":865,"_73":866},{"_34":485,"_63":919,"_73":920},"32 Savannah St SE, Atlanta, GA 30316, USA","

“strike organizers tried to keep children, as well as women workers, squarely in the public eye. For example, children and women were prominently featured in union-sponsored parades downtown. On 19 June, a labor spy reported that Smith and Miles ‘intend to use small children’ in the next day’s parade ‘to get the sympathy and support of the church people in particular’…the strike organizers, and especially Smith, utilized photographs depicting child labor at Fulton Mills to draw attention and support to their cause” (151).

“as had recently been done with the miners in Ludlow, Colorado, the UTW adopted a popular form of communication to its own ends, captioning some of the Fulton child labor photographs and converting them into postcards, which were sent across the country for publicity and support…The most widely circulated child labor image during the strike was that of Milton Nunnally (or Nunley, to which he was often referred in captions), who, according to the captions that frequently accompanied his picture, purportedly was ten years old and had received a total of sixty-four cents for two weeks work at Fulton Mills. Nunnally postcards were spotted in Sanford, Florida, and San Antonio, Texas. Nunnally’s picture was reprinted in the Atlanta Sunday-American during the debate over proposed child labor legislation, as well as in the Columbus (Ohio) Citizen, the Fort Smith (Arkansas) Southwest American, and various labor journals as a symbol of the oppression of the southern mills. UTW president John Golden included a picture of the boy in an appeal to Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson for federal intervention in the strike. An aide to Wilson reported seeing the Nunnally postcard in the hands of a northern congressman. At the AFL annual convention that fall, UTW organizer Sara Conboy told a heart-rending story using Nunnally as an example of the ‘grey, colorless lives’ of ‘kiddies of the mills.’ However symbolic, Milton Nunnally was an extreme case, and not fully representative of child workers at Fulton Mills. Furthermore, as his Fulton minor contract of employment showed, he actually was twelve rather than ten and had entered the plant only with the written permission of his mother. In addition, he apparently had done very little work during his brief stint in the mill; according to a supervisor’s report, Nunnally was ‘always into some kind of mischief.’ A federal investigator later expressed skepticism about Nunnally’s representation, stating, ‘All the records of the mills show that this boy was absolutely worthless, refusing to work, idling away his time and in a few days was discharged for these reasons. The people who are against child labor used this as an instance of [Elsas’s] utter disregard of the rights of the child in paying such poor wages, etc., and heralded this all over the country by postcards, newspapers, etc. Your investigator believes in this particular case that Mr. Elsas was in the right and that all the facts were not known by the persons who made the charges in reference to this child’” (153).

",33.7508788,-84.3671725,[911],"“strike organizers tried to keep children, as well as women workers, squarely in the public eye. For example, children and women were prominently featured in union-sponsored parades downtown. On 19 June, a labor spy reported that Smith and Miles ‘intend to use small children’ in the next day’s parade ‘to get the sympathy and support of the church people in particular’…the strike organizers, and especially Smith, utilized photographs depicting child labor at Fulton Mills to draw attention and support to their cause” (151).“as had recently been done with the miners in Ludlow, Colorado, the UTW adopted a popular form of communication to its own ends, captioning some of the Fulton child labor photographs and converting them into postcards, which were sent across the country for publicity and support…The most widely circulated child labor image during the strike was that of Milton Nunnally (or Nunley, to which he was often referred in captions), who, according to the captions that frequently accompanied his picture, purportedly was ten years old and had received a total of sixty-four cents for two weeks work at Fulton Mills. Nunnally postcards were spotted in Sanford, Florida, and San Antonio, Texas. Nunnally’s picture was reprinted in the Atlanta Sunday-American during the debate over proposed child labor legislation, as well as in the Columbus (Ohio) Citizen, the Fort Smith (Arkansas) Southwest American, and various labor journals as a symbol of the oppression of the southern mills. UTW president John Golden included a picture of the boy in an appeal to Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson for federal intervention in the strike. An aide to Wilson reported seeing the Nunnally postcard in the hands of a northern congressman. At the AFL annual convention that fall, UTW organizer Sara Conboy told a heart-rending story using Nunnally as an example of the ‘grey, colorless lives’ of ‘kiddies of the mills.’ However symbolic, Milton Nunnally was an extreme case, and not fully representative of child workers at Fulton Mills. Furthermore, as his Fulton minor contract of employment showed, he actually was twelve rather than ten and had entered the plant only with the written permission of his mother. In addition, he apparently had done very little work during his brief stint in the mill; according to a supervisor’s report, Nunnally was ‘always into some kind of mischief.’ A federal investigator later expressed skepticism about Nunnally’s representation, stating, ‘All the records of the mills show that this boy was absolutely worthless, refusing to work, idling away his time and in a few days was discharged for these reasons. The people who are against child labor used this as an instance of [Elsas’s] utter disregard of the rights of the child in paying such poor wages, etc., and heralded this all over the country by postcards, newspapers, etc. Your investigator believes in this particular case that Mr. Elsas was in the right and that all the facts were not known by the persons who made the charges in reference to this child’” (153).",[909,910,893],{"_73":906,"_134":907,"_135":908},[],"Milton Nunley","Southern Labor Archives Collection of the Georgia State University Library","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/5fx26y5xfciyn87fi1kiuj5vynrs?variant=desktop","new-stop-1666810320116","ggg",{"_108":912,"_105":140,"_134":907,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":913,"_147":914,"_34":857,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":906,"_158":-5},53,"nunley.jpg",{"_159":915,"_161":916,"_163":917,"_165":908,"_166":918},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/5fx26y5xfciyn87fi1kiuj5vynrs","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/5fx26y5xfciyn87fi1kiuj5vynrs?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/5fx26y5xfciyn87fi1kiuj5vynrs?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/5fx26y5xfciyn87fi1kiuj5vynrs?variant=lqip","union-commissary","Union commissary",{"_34":605,"_63":893,"_73":894},{"_34":525,"_63":933,"_73":934},"597 Tennelle St SE, Atlanta, GA 30312, USA","

“Directly addressing the concerns of workers afraid of losing their jobs and anxious to be provided for, and trying to bolster the UTW’s credibility, the speakers [at the May 31st meeting at White City] announced that a union commissary was opening that afternoon in the mill district, with ‘everything the strikers need . . . free of charge.’ With the establishment of the commissary, union leaders anticipated that the number of strikers would increase significantly. The union had also rented transfer wagons and its own boardinghouses for workers who might be evicted from company housing” (109).

",33.7506533,-84.3678104,[932],"“Directly addressing the concerns of workers afraid of losing their jobs and anxious to be provided for, and trying to bolster the UTW’s credibility, the speakers [at the May 31st meeting at White City] announced that a union commissary was opening that afternoon in the mill district, with ‘everything the strikers need . . . free of charge.’ With the establishment of the commissary, union leaders anticipated that the number of strikers would increase significantly. The union had also rented transfer wagons and its own boardinghouses for workers who might be evicted from company housing” (109).",[931,919],[],"new-stop-1661959227349",{"_108":194,"_105":140},"white-city-park-union-meeting","White City Park union meeting",{"_34":485,"_63":919,"_73":920},{"_34":375,"_63":956,"_73":957},"United Ave SE, Atlanta, GA, USA","

“On Sunday, 31 May, the UTW sponsored a mass meeting at White City, a popular working-class amusement park south of the mill district. In a tribute to the organizing ability and efforts of both the strikers and strike leaders, as many as a thousand workers and their families attended the gathering, along with ‘a number of prominent citizens.’” (108)

",33.7269338,-84.3594327,[949],"“On Sunday, 31 May, the UTW sponsored a mass meeting at White City, a popular working-class amusement park south of the mill district. In a tribute to the organizing ability and efforts of both the strikers and strike leaders, as many as a thousand workers and their families attended the gathering, along with ‘a number of prominent citizens.’” (108)",[948,933],{"_73":946,"_134":750,"_135":947},[],"White City Park","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/qf9tth62ki173rmz9fxnwo3o3ggf?variant=desktop","new-stop-1661959477394",{"_108":168,"_105":140,"_134":750,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":950,"_147":951,"_34":109,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":946,"_158":-5},"white city.png",{"_159":952,"_161":953,"_163":954,"_165":947,"_166":955},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/qf9tth62ki173rmz9fxnwo3o3ggf","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/qf9tth62ki173rmz9fxnwo3o3ggf?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/qf9tth62ki173rmz9fxnwo3o3ggf?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/qf9tth62ki173rmz9fxnwo3o3ggf?variant=lqip","eviction-of-striker","Eviction of striker",{"_34":525,"_63":933,"_73":934},{"_34":614,"_63":1016,"_73":1017},"213 Berean Ave SE, Atlanta, GA 30316, USA","

After the strike began, the company began evicting striking families from company-owned housing. This, however, became a part of the strategy of the strikers to gain sympathy with the public by distributing photographs of the evicted families.

“While the evictions would greatly disrupt the strike, Smith recognized that they also might provide a weapon in the battle for public opinion. At the [3 June] meeting, she exhorted workers not simply to vacate their houses when company agents came. Rather, Smith urged, ‘Make them drive you out. We will have a moving picture machine on the ground, and it would make some nice pictures. . . . We are going to make [the marshal] earn his pay, so good people make him drive you out.’ Early on Thursday morning, right after the marshal and his assistants, black laborers, and members of the company security force arrived in the mill district to carry out the evictions, Smith and Miles appeared, accompanied by local commercial photographer Duane A. Russell” (156).

“From the outset, strike leaders had a clear idea about how they would use the eviction photographs. On the day of the evictions, Smith indicated that the pictures that had been taken would be enlarged and placed in the display windows of downtown stores. Henry Day also reported that the photos would be put ‘in prominent places in town’” (157).

“the eviction pictures contained a pronounced theme of victimization. Widows and children were prominently featured in the photos, which also detailed the meager belongings of the Fulton strikers out on the street. Captions like ‘The Home-less Strikers’ further emphasized the workers’ plight. In other ways, too, the eviction photographs were often quite carefully arranged, even staged, with an eye to public relations. For instance, one of the families evicted was that of Fiddlin’ John Carson, a striking Fulton Mills weaver. Photographer Russell drew upon a common Atlanta convention concerning Fiddlin’ John, making sure to capture Carson with his famous fiddle, large family, and ever-present hound dog” (160).

“In addition to portraying forlorn, downtrodden workers, the photos publicized the dastardly deeds of the company and its agents. They included images of hired thugs ostensibly trying to goad strikers into retaliation, of mill officers supervising the evictions, of deputies and company doctor E. W. Hawkins—considered little more than a spy himself by many workers—on hand, and of mounted police officers and marshals putting workers’ belongings out on the street. One activity that strike organizers and UTW officials frequently publicized to various audiences was the employment of black laborers in the evictions. At the meeting at which Miles announced plans to place the eviction photos in downtown stores, he declared, ‘We are going to . . . show the people of Atlanta how you people were put out of your homes, by niggers.’ According to Smith, black labor was used because ‘no white man would stoop to help’ the marshal in putting the strikers out on the street; she said even the blacks hired to assist in the evictions were ‘ashamed’ of what they had done” (160-161).

",33.748881818740465,-84.3669428852417,[974,975,976,977,978,979],"After the strike began, the company began evicting striking families from company-owned housing. This, however, became a part of the strategy of the strikers to gain sympathy with the public by distributing photographs of the evicted families. “While the evictions would greatly disrupt the strike, Smith recognized that they also might provide a weapon in the battle for public opinion. At the [3 June] meeting, she exhorted workers not simply to vacate their houses when company agents came. Rather, Smith urged, ‘Make them drive you out. We will have a moving picture machine on the ground, and it would make some nice pictures. . . . We are going to make [the marshal] earn his pay, so good people make him drive you out.’ Early on Thursday morning, right after the marshal and his assistants, black laborers, and members of the company security force arrived in the mill district to carry out the evictions, Smith and Miles appeared, accompanied by local commercial photographer Duane A. Russell” (156).“From the outset, strike leaders had a clear idea about how they would use the eviction photographs. On the day of the evictions, Smith indicated that the pictures that had been taken would be enlarged and placed in the display windows of downtown stores. Henry Day also reported that the photos would be put ‘in prominent places in town’” (157).“the eviction pictures contained a pronounced theme of victimization. Widows and children were prominently featured in the photos, which also detailed the meager belongings of the Fulton strikers out on the street. Captions like ‘The Home-less Strikers’ further emphasized the workers’ plight. In other ways, too, the eviction photographs were often quite carefully arranged, even staged, with an eye to public relations. For instance, one of the families evicted was that of Fiddlin’ John Carson, a striking Fulton Mills weaver. Photographer Russell drew upon a common Atlanta convention concerning Fiddlin’ John, making sure to capture Carson with his famous fiddle, large family, and ever-present hound dog” (160).“In addition to portraying forlorn, downtrodden workers, the photos publicized the dastardly deeds of the company and its agents. They included images of hired thugs ostensibly trying to goad strikers into retaliation, of mill officers supervising the evictions, of deputies and company doctor E. W. Hawkins—considered little more than a spy himself by many workers—on hand, and of mounted police officers and marshals putting workers’ belongings out on the street. One activity that strike organizers and UTW officials frequently publicized to various audiences was the employment of black laborers in the evictions. At the meeting at which Miles announced plans to place the eviction photos in downtown stores, he declared, ‘We are going to . . . show the people of Atlanta how you people were put out of your homes, by niggers.’ According to Smith, black labor was used because ‘no white man would stoop to help’ the marshal in putting the strikers out on the street; she said even the blacks hired to assist in the evictions were ‘ashamed’ of what they had done” (160-161).",[968,969,970,971,972,956,973],[],"new-stop-1661960135266","eviction","eviction-o","eviction-of","eviction-of-strikers","eviction-of-striker-s",{"_108":109,"_105":22},{"_108":1007,"_105":35,"_134":907,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":1008,"_147":1009,"_34":912,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":1010,"_158":-5},{"_108":151,"_105":485,"_134":907,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":999,"_147":1000,"_34":754,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":1001,"_158":-5},{"_108":998,"_105":525},{"_108":888,"_105":375,"_134":907,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":989,"_147":990,"_34":991,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":992,"_158":-5},{"_108":980,"_105":272,"_134":907,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":981,"_147":982,"_34":832,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":983,"_158":-5},49,"marshall.jpg",{"_159":984,"_161":985,"_163":986,"_165":987,"_166":988},"Marshall","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/l2vycdzfns3c8oftmczcvts8oocm","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/l2vycdzfns3c8oftmczcvts8oocm?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/l2vycdzfns3c8oftmczcvts8oocm?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/l2vycdzfns3c8oftmczcvts8oocm?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/l2vycdzfns3c8oftmczcvts8oocm?variant=lqip","evict3.jpg",{"_159":993,"_161":994,"_163":995,"_165":996,"_166":997},57,"More Evictions","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8xgq4kc722s0z68dz6nwiia531g4","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8xgq4kc722s0z68dz6nwiia531g4?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8xgq4kc722s0z68dz6nwiia531g4?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8xgq4kc722s0z68dz6nwiia531g4?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/8xgq4kc722s0z68dz6nwiia531g4?variant=lqip",48,"jonfam.PNG",{"_159":1002,"_161":1003,"_163":1004,"_165":1005,"_166":1006},"Fiddling John's Family","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/v9f827p26wezg8znjmg79gic4j9i","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/v9f827p26wezg8znjmg79gic4j9i?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/v9f827p26wezg8znjmg79gic4j9i?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/v9f827p26wezg8znjmg79gic4j9i?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/v9f827p26wezg8znjmg79gic4j9i?variant=lqip",47,"fiddlejohn.jpg",{"_159":1011,"_161":1012,"_163":1013,"_165":1014,"_166":1015},"Fiddling John","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ka9dqvq92k9z7glqblu3rdvq7mjn","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ka9dqvq92k9z7glqblu3rdvq7mjn?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ka9dqvq92k9z7glqblu3rdvq7mjn?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ka9dqvq92k9z7glqblu3rdvq7mjn?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/ka9dqvq92k9z7glqblu3rdvq7mjn?variant=lqip","terminal-hotel","Terminal Hotel",{"_34":375,"_63":956,"_73":957},{"_34":1041,"_63":1042,"_73":1043},"Mitchell St SW & Ted Turner Dr, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","This was a hotel where UTW union organizer, Charles A. Miles stayed and where labor spies hired by Oscar Elsas also stayed to keep tabs on him.

“As extensive as the company’s network of internal informants was, Oscar Elsas drew upon yet another resource to monitor the strikers’ activities—labor spies. Aware of the tinderbox atmosphere at Fulton Mills through his company’s existing forays into Georgia, on 13 May, H. N. Brown, the vice president and general manager of the Philadelphia-based Railway Audit and Inspection Company, one of the nation’s largest labor espionage outfits, wrote Elsas promoting and detailing the work of his firm…after checking Railway Audit’s references, and in light of the fact that the strike had already broken out, in late May Elsas signed on with the espionage firm. The first four Railway Audit agents, known as ‘operatives,’ arrived in Atlanta over the weekend of 30–31 May, each ready to perform his particular specialty. One of these men was J. W. Williams, who obtained a room at the Terminal Hotel next to that of Charles Miles and began tailing Miles as he went about his business. Williams shared his hotel room with A. E. Winyard, who was an authority in the electronic surveillance of the day, or, as Oscar Elsas put it, an ‘expert wireman’” (Kuhn 115-116).

",33.7524023,-84.3956817,[1033],"This was a hotel where UTW union organizer, Charles A. Miles stayed and where labor spies hired by Oscar Elsas also stayed to keep tabs on him.“As extensive as the company’s network of internal informants was, Oscar Elsas drew upon yet another resource to monitor the strikers’ activities—labor spies. Aware of the tinderbox atmosphere at Fulton Mills through his company’s existing forays into Georgia, on 13 May, H. N. Brown, the vice president and general manager of the Philadelphia-based Railway Audit and Inspection Company, one of the nation’s largest labor espionage outfits, wrote Elsas promoting and detailing the work of his firm…after checking Railway Audit’s references, and in light of the fact that the strike had already broken out, in late May Elsas signed on with the espionage firm. The first four Railway Audit agents, known as ‘operatives,’ arrived in Atlanta over the weekend of 30–31 May, each ready to perform his particular specialty. One of these men was J. W. Williams, who obtained a room at the Terminal Hotel next to that of Charles Miles and began tailing Miles as he went about his business. Williams shared his hotel room with A. E. Winyard, who was an authority in the electronic surveillance of the day, or, as Oscar Elsas put it, an ‘expert wireman’” (Kuhn 115-116).",[1032,1016],{"_73":1029,"_134":1030,"_135":1031},[],"Terminal Hotel, Atlanta","Historic Atlanta Guidebook Images Collection of the Georgia State University Library","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/s2dciw2qqrq8u3k05wrt918ivr65?variant=desktop","new-stop-1666812469045",{"_108":1034,"_105":140,"_134":1030,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":1035,"_147":1036,"_34":728,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":1029,"_158":-5},54,"Terminal_Hotel,_Atlanta,_1907.png",{"_159":1037,"_161":1038,"_163":1039,"_165":1031,"_166":1040},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/s2dciw2qqrq8u3k05wrt918ivr65","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/s2dciw2qqrq8u3k05wrt918ivr65?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/s2dciw2qqrq8u3k05wrt918ivr65?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/s2dciw2qqrq8u3k05wrt918ivr65?variant=lqip",36,"grant-park","Grant Park",{"_34":614,"_63":1016,"_73":1017},{"_34":35,"_63":1065,"_73":1066},"740 Cherokee Ave SE, Atlanta, GA 30315, USA","

“A mass meeting at Grant Park, on Sunday afternoon, was used to air the grievances of the strikers. More than a thousand persons gathered to hear their complaints, which included the high brick walls topped with broken glass surrounding the mill, the written passes required of factory operatives when they left work, and the docking system which fined them for inferior work or for arriving late at their jobs. Speakers at the mass meeting were Charles A. Miles, A.F.L. organizer from New York; S. B. Marks, president of the Georgian Federation of Labor; and Mrs. E. B. Marks, an Atlanta labor leader. (Three weeks after this meeting Mrs. Marks was appointed by A.F.L. President Samuel Gompers to take local charge of the strike.) These speakers claimed that 435 operatives were out on strike at the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills. They also declared that 5,000 workingmen of Atlanta had agreed to share their salaries with the Fulton operatives during the strike, and that two million other workers in the country would back the strike financially. They also informed the audience that the National Textile Workers' Association had camped in Atlanta and would be here, if necessary, ‘until Gabriel blows his trumpet, if the Fulton mill owners were that long in agreeing to right the prevailing industrial conditions’” (Lefever 524-525).

",33.73605196029238,-84.37118188758848,[1057],"“A mass meeting at Grant Park, on Sunday afternoon, was used to air the grievances of the strikers. More than a thousand persons gathered to hear their complaints, which included the high brick walls topped with broken glass surrounding the mill, the written passes required of factory operatives when they left work, and the docking system which fined them for inferior work or for arriving late at their jobs. Speakers at the mass meeting were Charles A. Miles, A. F.L. organizer from New York; S. B. Marks, president of the Georgian Federation of Labor; and Mrs. E. B. Marks, an Atlanta labor leader. (Three weeks after this meeting Mrs. Marks was appointed by A. F.L. President Samuel Gompers to take local charge of the strike.) These speakers claimed that 435 operatives were out on strike at the Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills. They also declared that 5,000 workingmen of Atlanta had agreed to share their salaries with the Fulton operatives during the strike, and that two million other workers in the country would back the strike financially. They also informed the audience that the National Textile Workers' Association had camped in Atlanta and would be here, if necessary, ‘until Gabriel blows his trumpet, if the Fulton mill owners were that long in agreeing to right the prevailing industrial conditions’” (Lefever 524-525).",[1056,1042],{"_73":1043,"_134":750,"_135":1055},[],"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/vnvh8jd55moyd3xde7l7k4bsiu4z?variant=desktop","new-stop-1667416092669",{"_108":784,"_105":140,"_134":750,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":1058,"_147":1059,"_34":1060,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":1043,"_158":-5},"grant park.jpg",{"_159":1061,"_161":1062,"_163":1063,"_165":1055,"_166":1064},64,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/vnvh8jd55moyd3xde7l7k4bsiu4z","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/vnvh8jd55moyd3xde7l7k4bsiu4z?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/vnvh8jd55moyd3xde7l7k4bsiu4z?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/vnvh8jd55moyd3xde7l7k4bsiu4z?variant=lqip","fulton-bag-and-cotton-mills-strike-begins","Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills strike begins",{"_34":1041,"_63":1042,"_73":1043},{"_34":22,"_63":1080,"_73":1081},"170 Boulevard SE h314, Atlanta, GA 30312, USA","

\"Around 9:00 on the morning of Wednesday, 20 May, workers from through-out Fulton Mills walked off their jobs over the issues of union recognition and nondiscrimination. Company officials notified the police, and Captain Mayo and two other officers arrived on the scene. Rather than arrest people this time, however, the police simply informed the strikers that they could not congregate on the street. The crowd withdrew to Harris Gober’s grocery store, then reconvened in a mass meeting at the union hall on Decatur Street. Estimates of how many people actually took part varied widely depending on one’s vantage point. Strike leaders maintained that as many as 500–600 of the mill’s 1,300 workers went on strike that first day, while Oscar Elsas publicly asserted that only 78 people walked out.\" (106)

",33.7501965,-84.3701823,[1079],"\"Around 9:00 on the morning of Wednesday, 20 May, workers from through-out Fulton Mills walked off their jobs over the issues of union recognition and nondiscrimination. Company officials notified the police, and Captain Mayo and two other officers arrived on the scene. Rather than arrest people this time, however, the police simply informed the strikers that they could not congregate on the street. The crowd withdrew to Harris Gober’s grocery store, then reconvened in a mass meeting at the union hall on Decatur Street. Estimates of how many people actually took part varied widely depending on one’s vantage point. Strike leaders maintained that as many as 500–600 of the mill’s 1,300 workers went on strike that first day, while Oscar Elsas publicly asserted that only 78 people walked out.\" (106)",[1077,1078,1065],[],"new-stop-1661959123366","fulton-bag-and-cotton-mills",{"_108":762,"_105":140},"odd-fellows-temple-union-meetings","Odd Fellows Temple union meetings",{"_34":35,"_63":1065,"_73":1066},{"_34":1115,"_63":1116,"_73":1117},"276 Decatur St SE, Atlanta, GA 30312, USA","

\"As rumors of a strike abounded, the UTW invited only Fulton workers to another meeting on 5 May at the Odd Fellows Hall on Decatur Street, a half mile from the plant. 'Get together and unite,' union handbills declared. 'The time is at hand when the Cotton Mill Operatives must co-operate with each other'\" (Kuhn 104)

The daily union meetings held at the Odd Fellows Hall would be monitored by spies.

\"On 1 June, operatives Williams and Winyard met with Elsas, who had obtained a key to the meeting room. The two spies then rented rooms across Decatur Street from the hall, purchased wire and other supplies, then, pretending to be electric repairmen, installed in the hall a Detecto dictograph surveillance device, which was apparently a cross between telephone and primitive radiotechnology. Despite occasional glitches, they were able to listen in on the union meetings from their vantage point across the street and provide verbatim accounts of the proceedings. On 9 June, however, the surveillance ended. That day, someone at the union meeting heard a whining noise, looked up, and discovered the dictograph. Williams and Winyard quickly left their hideout, checked out of their hotel, and took a train to Cartersville, after feeling that their original destination of Marietta was still too close for comfort. Winyard departed for good, although Williams did go back to Atlanta and spy for a while longer\" (121).

Labor spy reports about this surveillance:

",33.74993020000001,-84.3807861,[1099,1100],"\"As rumors of a strike abounded, the UTW invited only Fulton workers to another meeting on 5 May at the Odd Fellows Hall on Decatur Street, a half mile from the plant. 'Get together and unite,' union handbills declared. 'The time is at hand when the Cotton Mill Operatives must co-operate with each other'\" (Kuhn 104) The daily union meetings held at the Odd Fellows Hall would be monitored by spies.\"On 1 June, operatives Williams and Winyard met with Elsas, who had obtained a key to the meeting room. The two spies then rented rooms across Decatur Street from the hall, purchased wire and other supplies, then, pretending to be electric repairmen, installed in the hall a Detecto dictograph surveillance device, which was apparently a cross between telephone and primitive radiotechnology. Despite occasional glitches, they were able to listen in on the union meetings from their vantage point across the street and provide verbatim accounts of the proceedings. On 9 June, however, the surveillance ended. That day, someone at the union meeting heard a whining noise, looked up, and discovered the dictograph. Williams and Winyard quickly left their hideout, checked out of their hotel, and took a train to Cartersville, after feeling that their original destination of Marietta was still too close for comfort. Winyard departed for good, although Williams did go back to Atlanta and spy for a while longer\" (121).Labor spy reports about this surveillance:Report from June 1Report from June 2Report from June 4Report from June 5Report from June 9",[1096,1097,1098,1080],{"_73":1093,"_134":1094,"_135":1095},[],"Odd Fellows Building & Auditorium","Historic American Buildings Survey, creator; David J. Kaminsky, photographer\n\nLibrary of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, GA,61-ATLA,1B-18","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/e1yb40b1tkixxfoa39ws5uu8g2mg?variant=desktop","new-stop-1661958840578","odd-fellows-temple","odd-fellows-temple-union-meeting",{"_108":280,"_105":140,"_134":1094,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":1109,"_147":1110,"_34":253,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":1093,"_158":-5},{"_108":301,"_105":22,"_134":777,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":1101,"_147":1102,"_34":151,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":1103,"_158":-5},"handbill.PNG",{"_159":1104,"_161":1105,"_163":1106,"_165":1107,"_166":1108},"Workers Handbill","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gbzwtq4f2adfhlptll7nowgqis0w","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gbzwtq4f2adfhlptll7nowgqis0w?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gbzwtq4f2adfhlptll7nowgqis0w?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gbzwtq4f2adfhlptll7nowgqis0w?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/gbzwtq4f2adfhlptll7nowgqis0w?variant=lqip","odd-fellows.jpg",{"_159":1111,"_161":1112,"_163":1113,"_165":1095,"_166":1114},"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/e1yb40b1tkixxfoa39ws5uu8g2mg","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/e1yb40b1tkixxfoa39ws5uu8g2mg?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/e1yb40b1tkixxfoa39ws5uu8g2mg?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/e1yb40b1tkixxfoa39ws5uu8g2mg?variant=lqip",35,"ponce-de-leon-apartments","Ponce de Leon Apartments",{"_34":22,"_63":1080,"_73":1081},"75 Ponce De Leon Ave NE, Atlanta, GA 30308, USA","To provide some context, this is where the president of Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills lived in luxury while his workers lived in slums.

“Atlanta of the early 1910s was a city of extremes, of often stark contrasts magnified and intensified by the city’s rapid growth and reflecting deep and widening divisions among its population. Fulton workers and owners manifested these growing disparities and inequalities in numerous ways. In 1914, company president Oscar Elsas moved to Peachtree Street, the city’s most fashionable thoroughfare. After graduating from Georgia Tech in 1891, Elsas had become vice president of the firm and had taken on a growing number of responsibilities involving all aspects of plant operations, before assuming the presidency in January 1914. That same month, he and his wife, Emma, whom Oscar had met while boarding with her family in Boston, moved into the new Ponce de Leon Apartments at the corner of Peachtree Street and Ponce de Leon Avenue. In so doing, the Elsases were among the first Jews in the city to have a prestigious Peachtree Street address. Atlanta’s initial modern luxury apartment house built on a grand scale, the Ponce de Leon featured a doorman in maroon livery at the elaborately grilled doors; an ornate lobby with a marble floor, Greek columns, and a Tiffany stained-glass rotunda; a spiral staircase curving upward for all eleven floors; stone lions resembling the gargoyles at Notre Dame at the foot of the twin turrets on the roof; and the city’s first penthouse. Residents enjoyed built-in maid quarters attached to the apartments; a dining room serving meals three times a day; ice made daily on the premises and then delivered to every tenant; and grand balls and other gala rooftop parties. Down the hall from the Elsases lived such prominent individuals as the president of the Citizens and Southern Bank and the southern representative for the Draper Loom Company. The 1911 Senate report explicitly noted that the fashionable residences of Peachtree Street stood ‘in strong contrast’ to the houses in the Fulton district. It singled out the Fulton neighborhood as having ‘an untidy and depressing appearance; the houses are for the most part poor and often squalid. . . . The cottages are of marked ugliness.’ In 1907, almost certainly referring to the housing around Fulton Mills, journalist Ray Stannard Baker maintained, albeit with some exaggeration, that there was ‘little difference in material comfort’ between the homes of local mill workers and the slum housing of the city’s black residents. And in 1914, an investigator for the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations (CIR) condemned the area’s housing, stating, ‘With the exception of one Jewish tenement in Chicago, I have never seen anything that equalled in repulsiveness . . . the housing conditions in this district.’” (37)

",33.7720133,-84.3845884,[1131],"To provide some context, this is where the president of Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills lived in luxury while his workers lived in slums.“Atlanta of the early 1910s was a city of extremes, of often stark contrasts magnified and intensified by the city’s rapid growth and reflecting deep and widening divisions among its population. Fulton workers and owners manifested these growing disparities and inequalities in numerous ways. In 1914, company president Oscar Elsas moved to Peachtree Street, the city’s most fashionable thoroughfare. After graduating from Georgia Tech in 1891, Elsas had become vice president of the firm and had taken on a growing number of responsibilities involving all aspects of plant operations, before assuming the presidency in January 1914. That same month, he and his wife, Emma, whom Oscar had met while boarding with her family in Boston, moved into the new Ponce de Leon Apartments at the corner of Peachtree Street and Ponce de Leon Avenue. In so doing, the Elsases were among the first Jews in the city to have a prestigious Peachtree Street address. Atlanta’s initial modern luxury apartment house built on a grand scale, the Ponce de Leon featured a doorman in maroon livery at the elaborately grilled doors; an ornate lobby with a marble floor, Greek columns, and a Tiffany stained-glass rotunda; a spiral staircase curving upward for all eleven floors; stone lions resembling the gargoyles at Notre Dame at the foot of the twin turrets on the roof; and the city’s first penthouse. Residents enjoyed built-in maid quarters attached to the apartments; a dining room serving meals three times a day; ice made daily on the premises and then delivered to every tenant; and grand balls and other gala rooftop parties. Down the hall from the Elsases lived such prominent individuals as the president of the Citizens and Southern Bank and the southern representative for the Draper Loom Company. The 1911 Senate report explicitly noted that the fashionable residences of Peachtree Street stood ‘in strong contrast’ to the houses in the Fulton district. It singled out the Fulton neighborhood as having ‘an untidy and depressing appearance; the houses are for the most part poor and often squalid. . . . The cottages are of marked ugliness.’ In 1907, almost certainly referring to the housing around Fulton Mills, journalist Ray Stannard Baker maintained, albeit with some exaggeration, that there was ‘little difference in material comfort’ between the homes of local mill workers and the slum housing of the city’s black residents. And in 1914, an investigator for the U. S. Commission on Industrial Relations (CIR) condemned the area’s housing, stating, ‘With the exception of one Jewish tenement in Chicago, I have never seen anything that equalled in repulsiveness . . . the housing conditions in this district.’” (37)",[1130,1116],{"_73":1117,"_134":1128,"_135":1129},[],"Tracy O'Neal Photographic Collection of the Georgia State University Library","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/wfustaqgwwx45tlwii1x1jgo2ei1?variant=desktop","new-stop-1667414763745",{"_108":991,"_105":140,"_134":1128,"_141":142,"_143":-5,"_144":-5,"_145":1132,"_147":1133,"_34":1134,"_150":151,"_152":153,"_154":-5,"_155":-5,"_156":157,"_73":1117,"_158":-5},"Ponce de Leon apartments.jpg",{"_159":1135,"_161":1136,"_163":1137,"_165":1129,"_166":1138},63,"https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/wfustaqgwwx45tlwii1x1jgo2ei1","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/wfustaqgwwx45tlwii1x1jgo2ei1?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/wfustaqgwwx45tlwii1x1jgo2ei1?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/openworld-atlanta-tours/v4/public/media/wfustaqgwwx45tlwii1x1jgo2ei1?variant=lqip","new-tour-1661370116966","OpenTourBuilder","OpenTourBuilderLogo","https://opentour.site/assets/images/otb-bg.png",{"_108":22,"_34":22,"_73":633},{"_108":35,"_34":35,"_73":632},{"_108":485,"_34":485,"_73":631},{"_108":525,"_34":525,"_73":630},{"_108":35,"_105":22},{"_105":22,"_108":485,"_34":485,"_73":647,"_63":648,"_644":1150,"_122":24,"_646":22},{"_105":35,"_108":525,"_34":525,"_73":642,"_63":643,"_644":645,"_122":24,"_646":22},"

Kuhn, Clifford M. Contesting the New South Order: The 1914-1915 Strike at Atlanta's Fulton Mills. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001.

Lefever, Harry G. \"The Involvement of the Men and Religion Forward Movement in the Cause of Labor Justice, Atlanta, Georgia, 1912-1916.\" Labor History Vol. 14, No. 4 (1973): 521-535.

Images:

Atlanta History Photography Collection, Atlanta History Center.

Atlanta Journal Constitution Photographs, Special Collections and Archives, Georgia State University, Atlanta.

Cinema Treasures. Cinema Treasures LLC, 2022, http://cinematreasures.org/.

Fulton Bag & Cotton Mills Digital Collection, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta.

Fulton Bag & Cotton Mill Strike Photographs, Southern Labor Archives, Special Collections and Archives, Georgia State University, Atlanta.

Historic Atlanta Guidebook Images, Special Collections and Archives, Georgia State University, Atlanta.

Planning Atlanta, Special Collections and Archives, Georgia State University, Atlanta.

Postcard Collection, Atlanta History Center.

Tracy O'Neal Photographs, Special Collections and Archives, Georgia State University, Atlanta.

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